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SMITHSONIAN DEPOSIT 



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L I Y E S 



PRESIDENTS OF THE UNITED STATES 



TO WHICH IS PREFIXED AN INTRODUCTORY 



HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES, 



FROM THE DISCOVERY 



TIME OF WASHINGTON. 



BY HENRY C. WATSON, 

AUTHOR OF " CAMP FIRES OF THE REVOLUTION," " NIGHTS IN A BLOCK-HOUSE," ETC., ETC. 



BOSTON: 

KELLEY&BROTHER. 

1853. 




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Entered, according to Act of Congress, in the year 1853, by 

KELLKY & BEOTHER, 



In the Clerk's Office of the District Court, in and for the District of 
Massachusetts. 



King <& Baird, Pro. No. 9 Sansom St. Phila. 



PREFACE. 



These memoirs of the Presidents of the United States 
have been composed and arranged upon a plan having some 
claim to novelty. An introductory chapter traces the his- 
tory of the country up to the time when the first of our 
chief magistrates appeared in the public arena, and the 
ensuing biographies contain everything of importance in 
our subsequent career as a nation ; so that while we give 
complete lives of the men, we also give the whole history 
of the mighty republic, over whose destinies they have been 
called to preside. It is believed that this design lends the 
work an interest beyond that which would arise from a 
simple succession of memoirs. 

We have reason to be proud of our country ; so vast are 
its resources; so peculiar is its career; so beneficent to 
mankind is its destiny ; and, in our opinion, we have a no 
less solid foundation for self-satisfaction in regard to the 
choice of our people for the chief magistracy. Here is no 
succession of one great man and a line of debased or imbe- 
cile descendants ; here is no array of tyrants and profligates, 

(5) 



VI PREFACE. 

relieved by one or two admirable characters ; but we have 
here those whom the people of each period thought most 
fitted by nature and education to carry out the provisions 
of the constitution. 

First of our Presidents comes George Washington — whom 
we are quite willing to compare with any George that ever 
succeeded to a throne ; yet, even this peerless man we could 
not allow to found a dynasty. When he retired from the 
scene of public toil, our people selected the ablest and best 
of his compatriots to fulfil the duties of the chief magis- 
tracy — the great orator, diplomatist, and war-minister of the 
revolution, John Adams j then the author of the Declara- 
tion of Independence, and the apostle of Democracy, 
Thomas Jefferson j and James Madison and James Monroe 
were successively chosen for their administrative ability. 

After these, the people displayed their detestation of all 
attempts at regular succession, in a more unequivocal way. 
Acting upon the suspicion that a cHque in a certain state 
were arranging nominations for the dominant party, they 
brought forward a great general of the West, and, with almost 
unprecedented enthusiasm, placed him in office. The two 
terms of his administration furnish a remarkable illustra- 
tion of the generous disposition of the masses to sustain 
their President in the performance of his duties in spite of 
the clamours of unscrupulous faction, or the combinations 
of those powers which are hostile to the true Hberty of the 
nation. The bold, able, and decisive administration of 



PREFACE. vii 

Andrew Jackeon is a very striking period in the history of 
the republic. His successors in office were men of whom, 
any country might have been proud — men of energy, abiUty, 
patriotism, and much pubhc service. "We have but to mark 
the characters and the deeds of our Presidents, to acquire 
a new faith in the stabihty as well as the beneficence of 
our institutions. 

In the ensuing pages we have endeavoured to avoid 
partiality. The rise and the progress of the great political 
parties are narrated, but their distinctive dogmas have re- 
ceived neither praise nor censure. This course seemed to 
us to be most proper in a work designed for general circu- 
lation. Such books are read for their facts, and not for 
their opinions ; and the intelligent reader may consider the 
latter impertinent. 

The most thrilling and striking events in the history of 
the country are illustrated ; and a portrait gallery including 
accurate likenesses of all the Presidents, will, it is hoped, 
add to the attractions of the book. No research or avail- 
able talent has been spared to render the " Lives of the 
Presidents" a work deserving a place in every American 
library. 



CONTENTS. 



INTRODUCTORY HISTORY Page 13 

GEORGE WASHINGTON 37 

JOHN ADAMS 177 

THOMAS JEFFERSON 200 

JAMES MADISON . 257 

JAMES MONROE 324 

JOHN QUINCY ADAMS 342 

ANDREW JACKSON 367 

MARTIN VAN BUREN 412 

WILLIAM HENRY HARRISON 426 

JOHN TYLER 442 

JAMES KNOX POLK 453 

ZACHARY TAYLOR 548 

MILLARD FILLMORE 592 

FRANKLIN PIERCE 615 



m 



LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS. 



Frontispiece — Battle of Monmouth. 








Portrait of George Washington Page 36 


Battle of Bunker Hill 










. 59 


Battle of Trenton 










. 86 


Battle of Eutaw Springs 










. 135 


Tailpiece ..... 










. 174 


Portrait of John Adams 










. 176 


Tailpiece — Capture of the Insurgent 










. 199 


Portrait of Thomas Jefferson 










. 201 


Tailpiece ..... 










. 254 


Portrait of James Madison 










. 256 


Battle of Little York . . ' . 










. 288 


Battle of Queenstown 










. 273 


Constitution and Guerriere . 










. 268 


Battle of Lake Erie . 










. 301 


Battle of Lundy's Lane 










. 317 


Tailpiece — Battle of New Orleans 










. 323 


Portrait of James Monroe . 










. 325 


Portrait of John Quincy Adams . 










. 343 


Portrait of Andrew Jackson 










. 366 


Battle of New Orleans 










. 397 


Tailpiece ..... 

2 










. 411 

rii) 



xu 



ILLUSTRATIONS. 



Portrait of Martin Van Buren 
Tailpiece ..... 
Portrait of William Henry Harrison 
Tailpiece ..... 
Portrait of John Tyler 
Tailpiece ..... 
Portrait of James Knox Polk 
Tailpiece ..... 
Portrait of Zachary Taylor 
Portrait of Millard Fillmore 
Tailpiece ..... 
Portrait of Franklin Pierce 



. 413 

. 425 

. 427 

. 441 

. 443 

. 450 

. 452 

. 547 

. 549 

. 593 

. 612 

. 614 



LIVES 



PRESIDENTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 



INTRODUCTORY HISTORY. 

Tradition and some records, which history does not yet 
adopt, assert that America was known to Europeans as early 
as the tenth century. However that may be, the discovery, 
if made, led to no important results. In 1492, Christopher 
Columbus, a Genoese navigator, under the patronage of 
Ferdinand and Isabella, sovereigns of Spain, after sailing 
westward, with the hope of finding a new passage to India, 
discovered the island of Guanahana, one of the Bahamas. 
He also discovered and landed upon several of the islands 
which are situated in the neighbourhood of the Bahamas. 
He gave them the general name of the West Indies, believing 
them to be near the westerly region of India. Amerigo 
Vespucci, a Florentine, who voyaged to the newly discovered 
region soon after Columbus, was the first person who pro- 
claimed to Europe that another continent had been found, 
and in compliment to him, it was called America. In the 
mean time, John Cabot and his son Sebastian, sailing under 
the patronage of England, were the first adventurers who 
reached the shores of the continent. (1498.) 

(13) 



14 INTRODUCTORY HISTORY. 

The English founded a claim to North America upon the 
discoveries of the Cabots, 

But many years elapsed before the English effected any 
settlement in America. The first attempt was made by 
Sir Humphrey Gilbert, who, in the month of June, 1578, 
obtained a patent from Queen Elizabeth, authorizing him 
to plant a colony in that country. Gilbert's project failed : 
but it was afterwards resumed by his half-brother, the cele- 
brated Sir Walter Raleigh, who, in 1584, obtained a patent 
similar to that which had been granted to Gilbert, and next 
year planted a colony at the mouth of the Roanoke, 
naming the country Virginia, in honour of his royal mis- 
tress. But all these settlers, as well as others who crossed 
the Atlantic during the next twenty years, either perished 
by famine and disease, or by the hands of the Indians, or 
returned to England. 

Although the attempt to plant colonies in America had 
hitherto proved unsuccessful, yet it was not abandoned. 
Accordingly, in the year 1606, James I. granted letters 
patent to two companies : the one, composed of adven- 
turers belonging to London, was named the First, or 
Southern colony of Virginia, and was ordered to settle 
between 34° and 41° of latitude ; the other, consisting of 
merchants belonging to Bristol, Plymouth, and Exeter, was 
called the Second, or Northern colony, and was authorized 
to make its settlement between 38° and 45°, but at the 
distance of at least 100 miles from the other colony. The 
territory granted to the first company was called Virginia, 
without any distinguishing epithet; but, in the year 1614, 
the territory assigned to the second company was called 
New England, a name which designated the country on the 
east of the Hudson. 

The first, or London company, sent out 110 emigrants, 
who, on the 29th of April, 1607, arrived on the coast of 
Virginia, at a point which, in honour of the Prince of Wales, 



INTRODUCTOHY HISTORY. 15 

they named Cape Henry. They afterwards formed a set- 
tlement on James' river, and founded Jamestown. 

In the year 1609 many of the nobility and gentry joined 
the London company, and obtained a new charter in the 
name of the " Treasurer and Company of Adventurers of 
the City of London, for the first Colony of Virginia." The 
charter bestowed on the company the absolute property of 
the country for 200 miles to the south of Cape Comfort, 
and as far to the north of that point, and from the Atlantic 
to the Pacific Ocean. Thus, the king of England bestowed 
on a few of his subjects, as a magnificent present, about 6° 
of latitude, and upwards of 50° in longitude, the property 
of many independent tribes. The vast extent of the grant 
was not then, indeed, distinctly understood ; but this igno- 
rance did not lessen the extravagance and injustice of the 
pretension of the king of England to deprive so many inde- 
pendent nations of their territorial property, and transfer 
it to his own people. 

The company was empowered to make ordinances for 
the colony, and for those at sea on their way to it ; and was 
exempted from all subsidies in Virginia for twenty-one 
years j and from all imposts on goods exported or imported 
from England, or any other part of the king's dominions, 
"excepting the five pounds in the hundred due for 
customs." 

The adventurers, elated by anticipated wealth, fitted out 
nine ships, provided with everything deemed necessary 
for the settlement of a permanent colony. They procured 
500 emigrants, although they gave them no adequate en- 
couragement. Only seven of the ships arrived in safety at 
their place of destination. 

By the nature of the country and climate, their own 
inexperience, their dissensions, the hostility of the natives, 
and w^ant of provisions, the colonists rapidly disappeared ; 
and of the 500 who had sailed from England, only sixty 



16 INTRODUCTORY HISTORY. 

remained at the end of six months after reaching the 
American shore. 

The colony would have been completely destroyed, but 
for the energy and prudence of Captain John Smith, who 
deserves his title of the "Father of Virginia." The rem- 
nant of the colonists were relieved by Lord Delaware, who 
brought new emigrants and ample supplies for the settle- 
ment. His lordship soon re-established order; but his 
health declining, he was obliged to sail for England early 
in the year 1611. On his departure disorder again ap- 
peared; but Sir Thomas Dale arriving in the month of May, 
with a new body of emigrants, and cattle and provisions for 
a year, the colony once more assumed the appearance of 
prosperity. The adventurers obtained a new charter, 
which confirmed the two former, and also granted them all 
the islands in the ocean within 300 leagues of the coast of 
Virginia. The corporation was also new modelled, and 
received a license to open lotteries in any part of Eng- 
land, for promoting the interests of the colony, by which 
they raised £29,000. 

Sir Thomas Gates arrived in the colony in the month of 
August, 1611, and administered its affairs till the begin- 
ning of the year 1614 ; when the government again fell 
into the hands of Sir Thomas Dale, to whom the Vir- 
ginians owe the introduction of landed property. In 1615 
he assigned fifty acres of land to every emigrant and his 
heirs; but in the beginning of the year 1616 he sailed for 
England, leaving the government in the hands of Sir 
George Yeardley. In the course of this year the cultiva- 
tion of tobacco, which had been originally brought from 
Tobago to England, was introduced into Virginia. 

Mr. Argal arrived as deputy-governor in May, 1617, and 
published various edicts. His government was imprudent 
and oppressive; and in order to remedy the evils of his 
administration, the treasurer and council of the corpora- 



INTRODUCTORY HISTORY. 17 

tion appointed Sir George Yeardley captain-general of the 
colony, with power to inquire into grievances and to redress 
them. Sir George arrived in Virginia in April, 1619, and 
soon announced his intention of calhng a general assembly ; 
a measure which excited much joy among a people who 
had hitherto been subject to the arbitrary authority of the 
prince, the selfish edicts of an English corporation, or the 
capricious orders of a haughty governor, without any of the 
privileges of freemen. 

In the month of June, the captain-general issued writs 
for the election of delegates. The colony had been divided 
into seven hundreds, or distinct settlements, which seemed 
to enjoy some of the privileges of boroughs, and hence the 
assembly of delegates received the name of the House of 
Burgesses. The governor and council of state, who were 
appointed by the treasurer and company, and the burgesses 
who were chosen by the people, met in one chamber, and 
discussed all matters relating to the interests of the whole 
community. This improvement in the constitution gave 
the people much satisfaction. It produced the best effects 
on the affairs of the colony, and the emigrants began to 
form more permanent settlements than they had hitherto 
done. 

In the course of this year government ordered the com- 
pany to transport 100 convicts to Virginia, and these out- 
casts of society were very acceptable to the colonists. The 
next year a Dutch ship brought to the colony a cargo of 
negroes from the coast of Africa. The Virginians readily 
bought them. 

While the Virginians were thus introducing slavery into 
their colony, their constitution underwent a change. The 
treasurer and company decreed that henceforth there should 
be two councils in the colony; the one, nominated by the 
treasurer and company, and removable at pleasure, was to 
be called the Council of State, and was to advise the 



18 INTRODUCTORY HISTORY. 

governor in the administration of affairs : the other was to 
be called the General Assembly, and was to consist of the 
governor and council, and of two burgesses, chosen by the 
inhabitants from each town, hundred, or settlement in the 
colony. The assembly was to enact laws, but the governor 
was to have a negative. No law was to be in force till con- 
firmed by the general court in England ; and no order of 
the general court was to bind the colony till it received the 
assent of the assembly. 

The company having offered lands to such as chose to 
emigrate, upwards of 3000 persons passed into the colony. 
These emigrants took possession of the territory of the 
Indians, without paying them any price for it, and not even 
asking their permission to settle there. This naturally 
gave offence : the Indians meditated revenge ; and in the 
year 1622, by a simultaneous attack on all the settlements, 
they massacred 347 persons without regard to age or sex. 
To the horrors of the tomahawk and scalping-knife the 
miseries of famine were soon added ; and of eighty planta- 
tions that were fast filling up, in a short time no more than 
eight remained. Only about 1800 of the colonists survived 
these calamities. 

Frequent complaints having been made to King James 
against the treasurer and company, he required them to 
surrender their grants; and on their refusal, he brought 
them before the Court of King's Bench, which, in 1624, with 
a courtly complaisance, decided agreeably to his wishes. 
The king seemed to consider the colonies as his private 
property, which he was entitled to manage according to his 
pleasure ; and hence he affected to take them under his 
own immediate care. Charles I. followed the same arbi- 
trary course. Discontent and confusion ensued ; and pros- 
perity departed from the colony. 

During the civil wars in England, the Virginians main- 
tained their allegiance to the king ; but, in the month of 



INTRODUCTORY HISTORY. 19 

October, 1650, after the parliamentary forces had com- 
pletely gained the ascendant, a strong armament was sent 
out to establish the authority of the commonwealth in the 
colony. With this force the colonists were not in a con- 
dition to contend, and therefore they prudently agreed to a 
capitulation ; in which it was stipulated " that the planta- 
tion of Virginia, and all the inhabitants thereof, shall enjoy 
such freedom and privileges as belong to the free people of 
England ; that the general assembly shall convene as for- 
merly ; that the people of Virginia shall have a free trade, 
as the people of England, to all places and with all nations ; 
that Virginia shall be free from all customs, taxes, and im- 
positions whatsoever, and that none shall be imposed on 
them without the consent of the general assembly ; and 
that neither forts nor castles shall be erected, nor garrisons 
maintained, without their consent." The Virginians, 
amounting at that time to about 30,000 souls, had a strong 
predilection for the royal government ; and during the 
protectorship numbers of royalists emigrated to the colony. 
On the death of Cromwell, they proclaimed Charles 11.^ 
and were forward in testifying their allegiance to the house 
of Stuart. 

The settlement of Massachusetts was next to that of 
Virginia in order of time. In the year 1614 Captain Smith 
explored the coast with much care between Penobscot and 
Cape Cod. He presented a chart and description of it to 
Charles, Prince of Wales, who was so well pleased with 
the country that he called it New England, a name which 
has since been applied to the States east of the Hudson. 

Religious persecution led to the settlement of this region. 
The zealous dissenters from the established church of 
England, called " Puritans," suffered many hardships from 
the intolerance of the government. A number of them 
first fled to Holland, and then formed the design of emi- 
grating to the new world, to enjoy unmolested their peculiar 
3 



20 INTRODUCTORY HISTORY. 

religious worship. They applied to the Virginia company 
for a patent, and it was not unwilling to favour their 
views. They solicited full freedom of conscience, but 
this the king decHned granting under the great seal : he 
promised, however, not to molest them, so long as they be- 
haved themselves peaceably. 

Tlie first band of the pilgrim fathers, consisting of 101 
persons, reached Cape Cod at break of day on the 9 th of 
November, 1620. Observing that they were beyond the 
limits of the company's patent, they thought themselves 
released from all superior authority; and, therefore, even 
before landing, they formed themselves into a " civil body 
politic under the crown of England, for the purpose of 
framing just and equal laws, ordinances, acts, constitutions, 
and offices," to which they promised all due submission and 
obedience. Forty-one persons signed this contract. 

They settled at a place, which, in affectionate remem- 
brance of the English port from which they had sailed, they 
named New Plymouth. The winter, although mild for 
that climate, was more rigorous than what the emigrants 
had been accustomed to ; and the severity of the weather, 
with the hardships naturally rising out of their situation, 
occasioned a great mortality among them. Before the 
end of March, they buried forty-four of their number; 
among whom were twenty-one who had signed the con- 
tract. 

In the beginning of November a ship arrived with thirty- 
five new settlers from London. This addition to their 
strength revived their spirits and stimulated their exertions ; 
but, although at an early period they had made friendly 
arrangements with the Indians for the territory which they 
occupied, yet they had many difficulties to struggle with, 
and their number increased but slowly. 

In the year 1628, Massachusetts Bay, so named after the 
sachem or chief of that part of the country, was purchased 



INTEODUCTORY HISTORY. 21 

from the Plymouth Council, and a company formed for 
establishing a settlement there. This company, under the 
name of " The Governor and Company of the Massachusetts 
Bay in New England," received a charter empowering 
them to make laws and ordinances for the good govern- 
ment of the plantation, not contrary to the laws of the 
realm. They were exempted from all custom or subsidy 
for seven years; and from duties on goods exported or 
imported for twenty-one years, excepting the old five per 
cent, custom on imports, after the expiration of the seven 
years. The first emigrants under this company settled at 
Salem ; but religious dissensions soon disturbed their peace. 
However, the colony prospered. The arbitrary measures 
of Charles, and the persecuting principles of Laud, in- 
creased the number of the emigrants ; and in about twenty 
years after the first settlement, 4000 families, consisting of 
upwards of 21,000 souls, passed into New England, in 298 
vessels. 

The governor and company removed from London to 
Massachusetts ; and, instead of the appearance of a corpo- 
ration, they soon assumed the form of a commonw^ealth. 
"They apprehended themselves subject to no other laws or 
rules of government than what arose from natural reason 
and the principles of equity, except any positive rules from 
the word of God." Their religious notions were deeply 
blended with all their civil proceedings. 

The freemen appeared personally in the general court 
till the month of May, 1634 ; when, for the first time, 
they sent twenty-four deputies as their representatives. 
These deputies, with the governor, deputy-governor, and 
assistants, formed the legislature of the colony. They met, 
deliberated, and voted together in one chamber till March, 
1644, when it was resolved that the governor and assistants 
should sit in a separate apartment. Hence the house of 
representatives became a distinct body. 



22 INTRODUCTORY HISTORY. 

As the number of emigrants increased, they spread them- 
selves more widely over the country ; and, so early as the 
year 1635, some families settled on Connecticut river, and 
formed plantations in different places. The Protector 
treated the New England settlers with much tenderness ; 
and Charles II. gave them charters with extensive powers. 

But no external circumstances could impart comfort and 
happiness to such a people ; for the elements of discord 
and mischief were treasured up in their own turbulent 
tempers. 

The New Englanders admitted none to a participation in 
their civil privileges who were not members of their church 
communion. Although they had fled from persecution, 
they became fierce persecutors, and could show no in- 
dulgence to any religious folly but their own. They 
whipped, banished, or imprisoned Anabaptists, Quakers, 
and others : they measured everything by the standard of 
their own creed. These quarrels, like the confusion of 
tongues at Babel, were the means of dispersing the settlers 
more widely over the country. 

Roger Williams, an earnest, able, and free-spoken minis- 
ter of Salem, being driven from the colony in January, 
16 36, led a few zealous friends into the wilderness, and 
founded Rhode Island. This colony increased rapidly, as 
religious freedom was guarantied to all, and as the peaceful 
policy of Williams averted Indian hostility. Mrs. Ann 
Hutchinson, a zealous preacher, joined Williams with a 
band of followers, and the Quakers generally took refuge in 
Rhode Island. 

The colonists of New England suffered but little from 
the hostility of the Indians during fifty years from the 
first settlement. But in 1675, Philip, of Pokanoket, a 
Wampanoag chief of great energy and abihty, formed a 
confederacy of tribes for the purpose of exterminating the 
whites, whom he deemed invaders and robbers. The war 



INTRODUCTORY HISTORY. 23 

took the colonists by surprise, and the tomahawk and fire- 
brand were plied everywhere to the extensive destruction 
of life and property. Many towns were burned. Others 
were deserted by the inhabitants. But at length, the 
colonists of Massachusetts, Plymouth, Rhode Island, and 
Connecticut united their forces, and prosecuted the war so 
vigorously that Philip was reduced to extremities. Deserted 
by most of his followers, this gallant chief was at length 
surprised and slain at Mount Hope. With his death ended 
the contest of which he had been the leading spirit. The 
colonists sustained great losses during this war, and the 
progress of the settlements received a considerable check ; 
but vessels laden with emigrants continued to arrive, and, 
in the calm of peace, the country revived. The founda- 
tions of the states of Massachusetts, Rhode Island, Connec- 
ticut, New Hampshire, and Maine were now securely laid. 
In 1692, the colonists displayed a very extraordinary 
frenzy in regard to what is known in history as the 
' Salem witchcraft." Suspicions and accusations of witch- 
craft became general among them; and on this fanciful 
charge many persons were put to death. This singular 
visitation first showed itself in the town of Salem. An 
ignorant minister of a church there, had two daughters 
subject to convulsions. He fancied they were bewitched ; 
and fixed his suspicions on an Indian girl who lived in the 
house, as the accomplice and tool of Satan in the matter. 
By harsh treatment he made the poor savage acknowledge 
herself a wdtch. Among a people like the New Englanders, 
this was throwing a firebrand into a powder magazine ; and 
the explosion was dreadful. Every woman subject to hys- 
terical affections instantly believed herself bewitched ; and 
was seldom at a loss to discover the guilty cause of her 
malady. Persons accused of the imaginary crime of witch- 
craft were imprisoned, condemned, hanged, and their bodies 
left exposed to wild beasts and birds of prey. Counsellors 



24 INTRODUCTORY HISTORY. 

who refused to plead against these devoted victims, and 
judges who were not forward in condemning them, were 
doomed to share their fate, as accomplices in their guilt. 
Children of ten years of age were put to death; young 
women were stripped naked, and the marks of witchcraft 
sought for on their bodies with unblushing curiosity. Scor- 
butical or other spots on the bodies of old men were reckoned 
clear proofs of a heinous commerce with infernal powers. 
Dreams, apparitions, prodigies of every kind, increased the 
general consternation and horror. The prisons were filled, 
the gibbets left standing, and the citizens were appalled. 
Under this frightful delirium, the miserable colonists seemed 
doomed to destruction by each others' hands. The more 
prudent withdrew from a country polluted by the blood of 
its inhabitants, and the ruin of the colony seemed inevitable; 
when, ceasing to receive countenance from those in autho- 
rity, this awful frenzy passed away, almost as suddenly 
as it had arisen. 

New England, although often agitated by internal dis- 
sensions, civil and rehgious, and assailed by savage hostility, 
continued to grow in population and resources. On all occa- 
sions, the people evinced a determined and independent 
spirit, which the English government strove in vain to 
quell. 

In the month of June, 1632, Charles I. granted to Lord 
Baltimore, a Roman Catholic, who enjoyed a large share of 
royal favour, the country on the north of Chesapeake Bay, 
and called it Maryland, in honour of his queen Henrietta 
Maria. He empowered his lordship, with the consent of 
the freemen or their delegates, whom he was bound to 
assemble for the purpose, to make all necessary laws for 
the colony not inconsistent with the laws of England ; and 
authorized him to execute the acts of assembly. There 
was no clause in the charter binding the colonists to trans- 
mit their acts to the king for approbation or dissent. Charles 



INTRODUCTORY HISTORY. 25 

reserved to himself and his heirs for ever, imposts, duties, 
and customs, which the colonists were bound to pay ; but 
he declared in the same charter, that " we and our heirs 
and successors, shall at no time set and make, or cause to 
be set, any imposition, custom, or taxation on the inhabitants 
of the province for their lands, goods, tenements, or chattels, 
within the said province." 

The first emigrants, consisting of 200 gentlemen of con- 
siderable fortune, with their adherents, chiefly Roman 
Catholics, who hoped, under a pro23rietary of their own reli- 
gious persuasion, to enjoy the liberty of conscience which 
was denied them in England. They sailed in the month 
of November, and landed in Maryland early in the year 
1633. 

Governor Calvert, brother of Lord Baltimore, wisely and 
justly purchased the land from the Indians, and, with their 
free consent, took possession of their town, which he called 
St. Mary's. The colony was judiciously governed, and soon 
became populous and flourishing. 

An assembly of freemen was held at St. John's in February, 
1639, when an act was passed for estabhshing the house of 
assembly. The legislative body was afterwards divided into 
an upper and a lower house ; they who were called by spe- 
cial writ constituting the first, and they who were chosen 
by the hundreds forming the last. 

The Popish colony of Maryland afforded a refuge to 
numbers of Puritans, whom their Protestant brethren in 
Virginia could not endure. While the Puritans of New 
England persecuted all who did not embrace their own 
notions, and while, in retaliation, the adherents of Episco- 
pacy in Virginia showed no indulgence to the Puritans, the 
Roman Catholic colony of Maryland set an example of 
toleration, little practised, at that time, even in Protestant 
communities. 

The civil wars in England were the occasion of con- 



26 ESTTRODUCTORT HISTORY. 

siderable disturbances in Maryland : but, notwithstanding 
tiie commotions which agitated the colony, it still in- 
creased, and at the restoration its population was esti- 
mated at 12,000 souls. Slavery was early admitted into 
Maryland. 

Carolina, which in order of settlement follows next after 
Maryland, owes its origin to the rapacity of the courtiers 
of Charles II., and to the facility of that monarch in re- 
warding his favourites and tools with a liberality which 
cost him nothing. About the time of the restoration, 
indeed, a few restless adventurers from Massachusetts had 
settled round Cape Fear; but, in the year 1663, Charles, 
who had no religion, on pretence of a pious zeal for propa- 
gating the gospel among the Indians, granted to a few of 
his courtiers, under the name of the province of Carolina, 
the extensive region, in America, lying between 36° and 
31° north latitude. The grant was afterwards somewhat 
enlarged both to the south and north, and extended from 
the Atlantic to the Pacific Ocean. The charter appears to 
have been copied from that of Maryland, and invested the 
proprietors with very extensive powers. 

In 1680, Charleston was founded on Oyster Point, formed 
by the confluence of the rivers Ashley and Cooper. It was 
long unhealthy; but since the adjacent country has been 
cleared and cultivated, it is as salubrious as any other part 
of the province. 

A system of laws for the government of the colony was 
framed by the celebrated Locke ; but those laws did not 
give satisfaction, and were at last abrogated. There was 
much discontent and quarrelhng in the province, owing 
partly to the misconduct of persons in authority, and 
I)aii;ly to the restless and turbulent character of the 
settlers. 

In the year 1728 an Indian war broke out, in which the 
savages were supported by the French and Spaniards. The 



INTRODUCTORY HISTORY. 2'7 

proprietors, finding themselves unable to maintain the con- 
test, resolved to surrender their charter to the crown. They 
surrendered it accordingly; and in 1735, Carolina was 
divided into two provinces, North and South, and each put 
under its own governor. 

New York and New Jersey were first planted by the 
Dutch, who called them the New Netherlands. Their 
chief settlement was on the Island of Manhattan or New 
York. But, in 1664, Charles II. granted to his brother, 
the Duke of York, the country extending from the west 
bank of the river Connecticut to the eastern bank of the 
Delaware, with the power of civil and military govern- 
ment. An officer, with a suitable naval and military 
force, was sent out to carry the grant jnto effect ; and the 
Dutch, unprepared for a struggle, were easily subdued. 

In 1673, the Dutch government, by a sudden attack, 
gained possession of the place, but resigned it to the 
English by the peace of the following year. The grant to 
the Duke of York wis renewed ; and for almost twenty 
years the colony was governed according to the will of his 
deputies. Bnt in 1682 the duke admitted the people to a 
share in the legislative power. This concession, however, 
he refused to ratify on his accession to the throne ; and 
during his short reign he governed the colony as a con- 
quered province. 

After the revolution in England, some commotions hap- 
pened in New York ; and Jacob Leister, a man of no edu- 
cation, who had usurped the supreme authority, was tried 
and executed as a traitor. 

WiUiam Penn, the celebrated Quaker, who had acquired 
joint property in the western parts of the Jerseys, became 
desirous of acquiring a separate right to the territory on the 
west of the Delaware. Accordingly, in 1680, he applied 
to Charles II., stated his claims, alleged that he had been 
deprived of a debt due to him by the crown, and prayed 
4 



28 INTRODFCTORT HISTORY. 

that, as a compensation, he might receive a grant of the 
lands lying north of Maryland, and west of the Delaware. 
He succeeded in his application, and received a charter, in 
which it was declared, " that no custom or other contribu- 
tion shall be laid on the inhabitants or their estates unless 
by the consent of the proprietary, or governor and assem- 
bly, or hij act of pa7'liam&nt in England." Penn was em- 
powered to assemble the freemen or their delegates, in such 
form as he should think proper, for raising money for the 
use of the colony, and for making useful laws, not contrary 
to the laws of England, or to the rights of the kingdom. 

Penn paid a proper attention to the rights of the Indians, 
and satisfied them for the territory of which he took pos- 
session. He was much attached to James II., and seems 
to have had considerable interest with that royal bigot, 
whom he importuned for a grant of the Delaware colony, 
although both he and James were perfectly aware that 
Lord Baltimore had a legal claim to that territory. But he 
was successful in his application ; and obtained the town 
of Newcastle, with a territory of twelve miles round, and 
the tract of land extending southward on the Delaware to 
Cape Henlopen. Without any regard to the claims of Lord 
Baltimore, he immediately assumed the rights of jurisdic- 
tion ; which led a to discussion productive of considerable 
irritation and inconveniency to both. 

At the revolution, Penn was considered a devoted adhe- 
rent of James, and for a time was excepted in the acts of 
grace published by WiUiam and Mary. But in 1696 he 
had again so far ingratiated himself at court as to be re- 
stored to his right of nominating a governor. 

Pennsylvania, like most of the other colonies, was occar 
sionally much agitated by internal dissensions. The foun- 
dation of Philadelphia, the capital of the province, was 
laid about the end of the year 1682. 

The Delaware colonj^, at one time named the Territories, 



INTRODUCTORY HISTORY. 29 

consisted of the three counties, Newcastle, Kent, and Sus- 
sex, commonly called The Three Lower Counties on the 
Delaware. 

The representatives of Pennsylvania and of the Territo- 
ries at one time met together ; but having disagreed and 
separated, all attempts to reunite them proved ineffectual. 

The contest between Lord Baltimore and Mr. Penn was 
referred to the committee of plantations, who decided that 
the peninsula between the bays of Chesapeake and Delaware 
should be divided into two equal parts, by a line drawn 
from the latitude of Cape Henlopen to the fortieth degree, 
and adjudged that the lands lying from that line towards 
the Delaware should belong to the king, and the other half 
to Lord Baltimore. This adjudication was ordered to be 
immediately executed. 

Georgia, the southernmost of the thirteen states, began 
to be planted in 1732. Li that year a number of gentle- 
men obtained from the crown a grant of the territory be- 
tween the Savannah and Alatamaha. They intended it 
as a bulwark, on the soutliern frontier, against the incur- 
sions of the Spaniards ; and also as a means of setthng 
numbers of people, who were burdensome at home to their 
friends and parishes. Under the name of Trustees for 
establishing the Colony of Georgia, the adventurers were 
constituted a corporation for twenty-one years ; and after 
the expiration of that term, the governor and all officers 
were to be appointed by the crown. 

The infant colony was encouraged and supported by the 
bounty of government, and by the liberaUty of individuals. 
The first settlers reached the place of their destination 
early in 1733, and in the month of February of that year 
began to build the first house of the town of Savannah. 
The colonists entered into a treaty with the Creek nation, 
and were thus saved from the dangers of Indian hostihty. 
In 1712, Georgia was invaded by about 5000 Spaniards, 



30 INTRODUCTORY HISTORY. 

aided by Indian auxiliaries 5 but the attack was foreseen 
and bravely repelled. 

From the preceding sketch, it is established that the 
American colonies were originally formed by persons of 
very different sentiments, characters, and habits; and, 
being spread along the coast over an extent of twenty 
degrees of latitude, the variety of climate, soil, and em- 
ployment, contributed to increase the original difference 
of character, and to modify the bodily figure and consti- 
tution of the colonists. 

While the English colonies were spreading rapidly, the 
French settled in Canada, gained a vast influence over the 
Indians, and seemed determined to secure the rich valleys 
of the Mississippi and Ohio, by a great chain of posts. 
The two nations were thus brought in conflict for the 
dominion of the New "World ; and from the accession of 
William III. to the British crown till the termination of 
the Seven Years' War in 1762, they were in a state of 
almost continual hostility. The French were the most 
active, skilful, and politic ; but the steady progress of the 
English could not be resisted. 

When hostilities commenced in Europe between Wil- 
liam III. of England, and Louis XIV. of France, the rival 
colonists in America began to annoy each other. (1689.) 
The French, in conjunction with their Indian allies, made 
predatory incursions into different parts of New England ; 
and a war of this kind, attended with much expense, and 
no little individual misery, was for some time carried on. 

It was frequently intended, by the ministry in Great 
Britain, to send an armament into North America for the 
protection of the colonies, and the invasion of Canada; 
but the affairs of Europe requiring all their attention, the 
settlers were obliged to arm in their own defence. At 
length. Colonel Nicholson was despatched to England, in 
order to represent the state of the country to Queen Anne, 



INTRODUCTORY HISTORY. 31 

and to petition for such assistance as would enable tliem to 
attack the French in their possessions, and to deliver them- 
selves from an enemy who was both troublesome and dan- 
gerous. Soon after, Nicholson returned with five frigates 
and a bomb-ketch ; but the colonies were to furnish the 
troops which might be requisite for the expedition. It was 
resolved to attack PortrRoyal in Acadia. The whole arma- 
ment, consisting of one regiment of marines, and four regi- 
ments of provincials, sailed from Boston (1707), and in- 
vested the place, which surrendered without opposition. 
Vetch was appointed governor ; and the name of the town 
was changed from Port-Royal to Annapolis, in honour of 
the queen. 

This, however, was a trifling and an ineffectual blow. 
More powerful aid was necessary : and Nicholson was again 
despatched to Europe, in order to solicit the prompt and 
decided interference of England. Contrary to all expecta- 
tion and behef, his mission was successful. He arrived at 
Boston in the year 1711, with instructions to the governors 
of the colonies to have their proportions of men in readiness, 
by the time that the fleet and army should reach them from 
Europe. The interval was exceedingly short; but as the 
service was agreeable to the people, as well as the govern- 
ors, they exerted themselves with unusual vigour, and all 
difficulties were overcome. 

The General Court of Massachusetts issued bills of credit 
to the value of .£40,000 in order to supply the money 
which the English treasury could not advance : the whole 
settlers were enjoined to furnish the army with provisions ; 
each colony brought in the proportion which was assigned 
it ; and all things being ready, the expedition set out from 
Boston on the 30th of July, and proceeded, without delay, 
to the river St. Lawrence. The number of troops which 
had arrived from Europe was considerable. They con- 
sisted of seven veteran regiments, which had fought under 



32 INTRODUCTORY HISTORY. 

the illustrious Duke of Marlborough, and one regiment of 
marines; and these, together with the provincials, amounted 
to 6500 men; a force equal to that which afterwards, under 
the command of Wolfe, reduced Quebec, when it was forti- 
fied with more skill, and defended by an abler general. 

One fatal night blasted the hopes of the colonists. As 
they sailed down the river, eight of the transports were 
wrecked on Egg-Island ; and the weather was so unfavoura- 
ble, that they were more than a week in reaching Quebec. 
The expedition was soon after abandoned ; and the treaty 
of Utrecht being signed in Europe, a termination was put 
to the war. The Indians, in the service of the French, no 
longer prompted to hostilities, and no longer supported by 
their allies, sued for peace. 

During the peace, the republican spirit of the colonies in 
New England showed itself in disputes with their governors : 
and these disputes were increased by the arbitrary manner 
in which the governors enforced the orders of the crown. 
In most instances, however, the colonies had the advantage : 
knowing what was due to them as the subjects of England, 
they determined not to sacrifice any of their rights to the 
enjoyment of a temporary repose. They had the money 
of the country in their possession, and, as had been done 
in Europe, they might withhold the supplies of all kinds, 
till their object was gained. 

The final struggle, it was evident, could not long be 
averted. The prize for which the rival nations contended 
was worthy of their most strenuous exertions, and both 
seemed to be fully aware of that fact. Both accordingly 
increased their strength and prepared for a desperate 
contest. 

The white population of the French colonies amounted 
to 52,000 men. Their whole power was marshalled under 
one ruler. The temper of the people, as well as the genius 
of the government, was military. With the exception of 



INTRODUCTORY HISTORY. 33 

the Six Nations (formerly the Five Nations, a new tribe 
having entered the confederacy), all the Indians were at- 
tached to France ; they were trained to war after the Euro- 
pean manner ; the efficacy of their assistance had already 
been experienced, and their aid was the more important 
and valuable, as they were acquainted with the recesses of 
the country which was to become the theatre of war. In 
opposing the force, and defeating the plans of the French, 
the English colonies laboured under many disadvantages. 
They were separated into distinct governments and inter- 
ests ; excepting those of New England, they were altogether 
unaccustomed to union ; they were not inured even to 
obedience, for they were jealous of the crown, and involved 
in frequent disputes with their immediate rulers. They 
were spread over a large territory, and in the central pro- 
vinces the people had lived in such tranquillity, and for so 
long a time, that they were wholly unacquainted with 
military operations. Their population, however, exceeded 
that of the French greatly, and was equal to a million of 
souls. 

Such was the state of affairs, and the condition of the 
combatants, when the first of the Presidents of the United 
States — the peerless Washington — made his appearance 
upon the scene of action, and first attracted the public 
gaze. 



GEORGE WASHINGTON. 



The American citizen traces the career of the first of our 
Presidents with a warmer enthusiasm, and a purer admira- 
tion, than the EngUshman or the Frenchman can feel, while 
perusing the lives of Alfred the Great or Henry the Fourth. 
The monarchs may have possessed great and heroic quali- 
ties. We expect to find such in those who claim to rule 
by divine right. The American knows that Washington 
sprang from among the people ; that he only claimed com- 
mand and authority as long as they were wilUng to con- 
cede them ; that he ruled only because he deserved to rule ; 
and that history mentions no man of equal ability who 
possessed that determination to do his whole duty to God, 
to man, and to his country, which ever characterized the 
conduct of the Pater Patrice. 

John Washington, the great-grandfather of George, emi- 
grated from the north of England to Virginia, in 1657, and 
settled on Bridge's Creek in the county of Westmoreland. 
He had two sons — John and Augustine. In 1730, Augus- 
tine married his second wife — Miss Mary Ball. George 
Washington, the first child by this marriage, was born on 
the 22d of February, 1732. In his earliest years, he was 
distinguished from other children by an active, gentle and 
generous disposition. When he was but ten years of age, 
his father died, and the care of the family devolved upon 
his mother. Happily, she was fitted for her task by all the 
5 (37) 



38 GEORGE WASHINGTON. 

qualities that ennoble womanliood. She secured for George 
a good English education — and instilled into his mind the 
highest principles for the regulation of his life. 

Reading, writing, arithmetic, and the mathematics were 
successively acquired by young Washington. Although a 
close student, he delighted in athletic sports and military 
exercises. He was distinguished among his fellow-pupils 
not only for the accuracy of his studies, but for strength 
and agility. Possessing an ardent temper, he strove to ac- 
quire a perfect self-command; and there is preserved a code 
of conduct, which he framed to guide his course in company 
and conversation. That calm self-control, which was so 
remarkably displayed by Washington in the most stirring 
scenes of his life, was the result of a rigid practice in his 
early years. 

Having gained a knowledge of surveying, Washington 
left school when about sixteen years of age, and secured 
employment from Lord Fairfax. While at school, his half- 
brother Lawrence had procured for him a midshipman's 
warrant; but the earnest entreaties of his beloved mother 
deterred George from entering upon a profession he ardently 
desired. The business of surveying the wild lands in the 
vicinity of the Alleghany Mountains, however, was quite 
as full of excitement as a career at sea. The country 
swarmed with Indians, seldom peaceably disposed, and the 
hardships of the wilderness were many. Washington per- 
formed the service with care and skill, gained an extensive 
knowledge of the country and its inhabitants, and esta- 
blished his reputation as a surveyor. He obtained a com- 
mission as a public surveyor, and continued to perform the 
duties of that office until he was nineteen years of age. 

At that time, the province of Virginia was divided into 
districts, in each of which was stationed an adjutant-gene- 
ral with the rank of major, to muster and discipline the 
militia. The governor, having confidence in the ability 



GEORGE WASHINGTON. 39 

of young Washington, appointed him to command in one 
of these districts, and he immediately devoted his attention 
to the study of the miUtary art. This study was inter- 
rupted by the iUness of Lawrence Washington. George 
accompanied him to Barbadoes, and did not return to Vir- 
ginia until after the death of this brother left liim executor 
of the estate. In 1752, Governor Dinwiddie divided Vir- 
ginia into four grand military departments, the most north- 
ern of which was given in charge to young Washington — a 
proof of the estimation in which his energy and ability were 
held. 

Major Washington was now called upon to perform an 
arduous service. Governor Dinwiddie, receiving informa- 
tion that the active French were about to construct forts 
on the Ohio, determined to send a commissioner to confer 
with the commander of the rival forces, to inquire by what 
right he dared to invade the dominions of the king of 
England, and what were his designs. Major Washington, 
though but twenty-one years of age, was thought to be 
best qualified for this difficult and dangerous commission, 
and accordingly he was selected. The following instruc- 
tions were given to him : — 

"Whereas, I have received information of a body of 
French forces being assembled in a hostile manner on the 
river Ohio, intending by force of arms to erect certain forts 
on the said river within this territory, and contrary to the 
dignity and peace of our sovereign the king of Great 
Britain. 

" These are therefore to require and direct you, the said 
George Washington, forthwith to repair to Logstown on the 
said river Ohio ; and having there informed yourself where 
the said French forces have posted themselves, thereupon 
to proceed to such place ; and, being there arrived, to pre- 
sent your credentials, together with my letter, to the 



40 GEORGE WASHINGTON". 

chief commanding officer, and in the name of his Britannic 
Majesty to demand an answer thereto. 

"On your arrival at Logstown you are to address your- 
self to the Half-King, to Monacatoocha, and other sachems 
of the Six Nations, acquainting them with your orders to 
visit and deliver my letter to the French commanding offi- 
cer, and desiring the said chiefs to appoint you a sufficient 
number of their warriors to be your safe-guard as near the 
French as you may desire, and wait your further direction. 

" You are diligently to inquire into the numbers and 
force of the French on the Ohio, and the adjacent country; 
how they are likely to be assisted from Canada ; and what 
are the difficulties and conveniences of that communication; 
and the time required for it. 

"You are to take care to be truly informed what forts 
the French have erected, and where ; how they are garri- 
soned and appointed, and what is their distance from each 
other, and from Logstown : and from the best intelligence 
you can procure, you are to learn what gave occasion to 
this expedition of the French ; how they are likely to be 
supported, and what their pretensions are. 

"When the French commandant has given you the 
required and necessary despatches, you are to desire of 
him a proper guard to protect you as far on 3"our return, 
as you may judge for your safety, against any straggling 
Indians or hunters, that may be ignorant of your character, 
and molest you. 

" Wishing you good success in your negotiation, -and safe 
and speedy return, I am, &c. 

" Egbert Dinwiddie."* 

These instructions were obeyed with remarkable fidelity. 

Washington left Virginia on the 14th of November, 

1753, performing a journey over mountain and torrent, 

* Sparks's Writings of Washington. 



GEORGE WASHINGTON. 41 

through morass and forest, bearing the inclemency of the 
winter in a trackless wilderness. On the fifth day after 
his departure, he reached the mouth of Turtle Creek, on 
the Monongahela. Here he learned from Frazier, an Indian 
trader, that expresses had been sent down the river with 
intelligence to the traders of the French general's death, 
and the return of the French army to winter quarters. He 
then proceeded to the forks of the Ohio, ten miles below, 
having sent his baggage by water. Washington, when 
waiting for the arrival of his baggage, spent some time in 
viewing the present site of Pittsburgh, with reference to the 
building of a fort. The Ohio company had intended to 
have erected a fort, about two miles further up the Monon- 
gahela, on the south-east side. Washington examined both 
situations, and gave a decided preference to the forks of the 
Ohio. 

Afterwards Washington, in company with Half-King, 
and three other sachems of the Six Nations, proceeded to 
Fort Venango, and then to Fort Le Boeuf, on a branch of 
French Creek, at which latter place they arrived on the 
11th day of December. Here Washington had an inter- 
view with the commandant, showed his commission, and 
delivered the letter of the governor of Virginia. The 
French officers held a council ; during which time, Wash- 
ington made observations in relation to the fort ; took an ex- 
act account of its situation, dimensions, and number of men 
in the garrison, and the number of canoes, which were in 
readiness to convey their forces down the river in the spring. 
After considerable delay, he received the answer of Legar- 
deau de St. Pierre, the French commandant, dated at Fort 
Le Boeuf, referring the discussion of the rights of the two 
countries, to the Marquis du Quesne, governor-general of 
Canada, by whose orders he had assumed, and meant to 
maintain his present position. From De la Joncaire, a 
captain in the French service, and Indian interpreter, 



42 GEORGE WASHINGTON. 

Washington received full information of the designs of the 
French. The}^ claimed the Ohio river, and the country 
through which it flows, from the discovery of La Salle, 
sixty years before, and their present measures for its defence 
had arisen from the attempts of the Ohio Company to 
occupy its banks. On Wednesday, the 26th day of 
December, with gun in hand, and pack on his back, in 
which were his papers, he set out on foot for Virginia, in 
company with a gentleman by the name of Gist. Their 
horses had become so enfeebled, that they were put in 
charge of one of the company, by the name of Vanbraam, 
with money and directions to bring them and the baggage 
along, with the most convenient despatch. After great 
hardships, and suffering from cold, and peril from hostile 
Indians, Washington arrived at Williamsburg, on the 
16th day of January, 1754, after a tedious and danger- 
ous journey.* 

Governor Dinwiddle now perceived the necessity of 
vigorous measures. A considerable force was raised and 
organized ; Colonel Fry was appointed commander-in-chief, 
and Washington was a23pointed second in command, with 
the rank of lieutenant-colonel. 

The Ohio Company having determined to erect a fort at 
the junction of the Monongahela and Alleghany, Captain 
Trent, with about forty men, was sent to perform the service. 
This party arrived at its destination late in February, 1754, 
and immediately began to erect a fort. On the 16th of 
April, Monsieur Contracceur, with a fleet of 360 batteaux, 
and canoes, carrying upwards of one thousand men and 
eighteen pieces of artillery, came down from Venango, and 
summoned the commander of the English to surrender. 
Resistance would have ended in destruction, and therefore 
the party surrendered. 

At this time, Colonel Washington, with one hundred and 

* History of Western Pennsylvania. 



GEORGE WASHINGTON. 43 

fifty men, was encamped at Wills Creek, at which place he 
had concluded a treaty with the Indians. Receiving the 
news of the surrender of the unfinished fort, he called a 
council of war, to determine upon the course to be pursued. 
It was resolved to march to the mouth of Redstone Creek 
on the Monongahela, and raise a fortification. On the 25th 
of April, Washington sent a detachment of sixty men to open 
a road. As trees had to be felled, and rocks removed, the 
march was slow and toilsome. After passing through the 
mountains, Washington reached the Youghiogheny, where 
he M^as compelled to construct a bridge. Learning that 
the French were coming out to meet him, he hastened 
forward to the Great Meadows, where he threw up an in- 
trenchment. 

Early in the morning of the 27th of May, Mr. Gist 
arrived in camp from his residence, which is about thirteen 
miles distant, and informed Colonel Washmgton that M. 
La Force, with fifty men, had been at his plantation the 
day before, and that on his way he had seen the tracks 
of the same party, five miles from the encampment at 
the Great Meadows. Seventy-five men were immediately 
despatched in pursuit of this party, but they returned 
without having discovered it. Between eight and nine 
o'clock the same night, an express arrived from Half-King, 
who was then six miles off, with intelligence that he had 
seen the tracks of Frenchmen, which had been traced to 
an obscure retreat, and that he imagined the whole party 
to be concealed within a short distance. Fearing this 
might be a stratagem of the French for attacking his camp, 
Colonel Washington put his ammunition in a place of 
safety, and leaving a strong guard to protect it, he set out 
with forty men, and reached the Indians' camp a little before 
sunrise, having marched through a rainy and exceedingly 
dark night. 

On consulting with Half-King, and the other Indians of 



44 GEORGE WASHINGTON. 

his party, it was agreed that they should march together 
and make the attack in concert on the French. They then 
proceeded in single file through the woods, after the manner 
of the Indians, till they came upon the tracks of the two 
Frenchmen, when the Half-King sent two Indians forward 
to retrace these tracks, and discover the position of the 
main body. This was found to be in a very retired place, 
surrounded by rocks, and half a mile from the road. A 
disposition for attack was then formed, in which the 
English occupied the right wing and the Indians the left. 
In this manner they advanced, till they came so near as to 
be discovered by the French, who instantly ran to their arms. 
Washington then ordered his men to fire, and a skirmish 
ensued. The firing continued on both sides about fifteen 
minutes, till the French were defeated, with the loss of their 
whole party; ten men being killed, including their com- 
mander, M. de Jumonville, one wounded, and twenty-one 
taken prisoners. Colonel Washington's loss was one man 
killed and two or three wounded. The Indians escaped with- 
out injury, as the firing of the French was directed chiefly 
against the right wing, where Washington and his men were 
stationed."* 

As soon as the news of the capture of the party under 
Jumonville reached Fort Duquesne, the French made 
vigorous preparations to send a force against Washington. 
Some of the Indians, alarmed at the prospect of such a 
movement, came to the Great Meadows for protection, as 
they had agreed to take an open part against the French. 
Colonel Washington immediately commenced enlarging his 
intrench ments, and strengthening his palisades. He gave 
the place thus fortified the name of Fort Necessity. His 
army had been increased to four hundred men. A road 
was cut with excessive toil, over Laurel Hill, to Gist's 
plantation. At that place a council of war was held, 

* Sparks's Washington, vol. 2, pp. 451-2. 



GEORGE WASHINGTON. 45 

wliicli resolved upon a retreat. Tliis was commenced, 
but the difficulties encountered were so great, that Wash- 
ington resolved to halt at Fort Necessity, and there await 
the attack of the enemy. The defences were much 
strengthened, and every preparation made for a vigorous 
resistance. 

On the morning of the 2d of July, the approach of the 
enemy was announced by a wounded sentinel. At eleven 
o'clock they came within six hundred yards of the fort and 
fired, but without effect. Colonel Washington had drawn 
up his men outside of the trenches, and ordered them to 
reserve their fire till they should be near enough to do some 
execution. As the French and Indians did not seem inclined 
to assault, he then drew the men within the trenches, and 
ordered them to fire as opportunity presented. The enemy 
kept up a brisk fire of musketry during the day. The rain 
fell heavily, and the trenches were filled with water. About 
eight o'clock at night the French commander requested a 
parley. Washington complied. The result of the parley 
was an agreement upon terms of honourable capitulation. 
Colonel Washington, with his troops, were to march out of 
the fort with drums beating and colours flying, and have 
free and unmolested passage to the inhabited parts of Vir- 
ginia. The prisoners taken in the skirmish with Jumon- 
ville were restored to the French. No more such establish- 
ments were to be built by either party, upon the disputed 
territory, within a year from the time of the capitulation. 
The next morning Colonel Washington began his march 
from the fort. The Indians could hardly be restrained from 
pilfering his baggage and attacking his men. But he suc- 
cee'ded in getting safely beyond their reach. After the capture 
of Fort Necessity, the French and Indians retired to Fort 
Duquesne. 

The British government at last awoke to the importance 
of resisting the growing power of the French in America. 
6 



46 GEORGE WASHINGTON. 

Two thousand men were ordered to be raised in the colo- 
nies ; and two regiments of foot from Ireland were ordered 
to Virginia. On the 14th of January, 1754, Major- 
General Edward Braddock, with the regular troops, sailed 
from Cork, and on the 20th of February arrived in Vir- 
ginia. On the 14th of April, 1755, a council was held 
at Alexandria, in which the plan of the campaign was 
fixed upon. As the chief part of that plan, General 
Braddock, with the British troops, and some volunteers 
from Maryland and Virginia, was to proceed against Fort 
Duquesne. 

The forces destined for the expedition against Fort Du- 
quesne, assembled at Fort Cumberland, on Wills Creek, in 
May. They comprised 1000 regulars, 1200 provincials, 
and about thirty sailors from Admiral Keppel's fleet. 
Colonel Washington accompanied Braddock as aid-de- 
camp, having, a short time previous, resigned his commis- 
sion on account of a difficulty in regard to rank. While 
at Fort Cumberland, waituig the opening of a road through 
the Cumberland valley, and the arrival of horses and 
wagons. General Braddock gave evidence of that impru- 
dence of temper which afterwards led to disaster. He 
charged the colonial governments with neglecting the ex- 
pedition ; and at one time, declared it should not proceed, 
if means of conveyance were not soon provided. Every 
exertion had been made of which the colonial governments 
were capable. 

Having sent forward a detachment of five hundred men, 
to open the roads and erect a fort at Little Meadows, Brad- 
dock, with the main body of his army, commenced his 
march for Fort Duquesne. Scaroyoda and Captain Jack, 
Delaware sachems, with about one hundred and fifty In- 
dians, offered to act as scouts and guides, and Colonel 
Washington advised the commander-in-chief to accept their 
services. But the self-sufficiency and military pride of 



GEORGE WASHINGTON. 47 

Braddock, rejected the advice with contempt. At the 
Little Meadows, a halt was made. . Braddock then changed 
the plan of the march. Twelve hundred men with twelve 
pieces of cannon were selected, and at the head of this 
force, the commander-in-chief pushed on for Fort Duquesne, 
leaving the remainder of the troops to follow hy easy 
marches. Crossing the Youghiogheny on the 9tli of July, 
the troops pressed on in high spirits. At noon, they again 
crossed the same river, and soon after, the vanguard was 
fired upon as it ascended a hill, by a concealed foe. A 
heavy discharge of musketry was then poured in upon the 
right flank. The general advanced to the relief of these 
detachments ; but before he could reach the ground they 
occupied, they gave way, and rushing back upon the other 
parts of the army, caused extreme confusion. Braddock, 
instead of adopting the Indian mode of warfare, endea- 
voured to form his men in platoons and keep them together, 
as if fighting upon an oj)en battle-field. Huddled together, 
the troops were compelled to withstand a heavy fire for 
more than three hours. They fired irregularly, and did 
but little harm to the enemy. The French and Indians, 
securely posted behind trees or among the high grass, took 
deliberate aim, and committed terrible havoc, especially 
among the EngHsh officers. At length more than one-half 
of the army being either killed or wounded, and the gene- 
ral himself having received a mortal wound, the trooj)s 
broke and fled in dismay. The few remaining officers en- 
deavoured to rally them, but in vain. They shot down 
the men who wanted to make them stand and wait to be 
slaughtered. Colonel Washington, at the head of the pro- 
vincials, covered the retreat. He displayed a calm courage 
and a consummate skill at this trying moment ; and but for 
his exertions the day would have been far more disastrous 
for the 'English. Though constantly exposed to the fire 
of the enemy, he did not receive a single scratch — much 



48 GEORGE WASHINGTON. 

to the wonder of friends and foes. General Braddock and 
a few other wounded officers were brought off. But the 
rest of the wounded, with the artillery, ammunition, stores, 
and baggage,, fell into the hands of the victors. The fugi- 
tives were not pursued, and they arrived at the camp of 
Colonel Dunbar, who was coming up with the remainder of 
the forces engaged in the expedition. The whole loss of 
the English in this disastrous defeat was about six hundred 
and fifty men killed or wounded, including sixty-eight 
officers. General Braddock died four days after the battle, 
and was buried in the road, to conceal his grave from the 
Indians. 

Colonel Dunbar had sufficient force to have advanced and 
retrieved the fortunes of the expedition. But a ^oanic ap- 
pears to have seized the troops. All the ammunition and 
stores unnecessary for immediate use were destroyed, and 
, Dunbar marched for Fort Cumberland. At that place, he 
was met by the governors of Pennsylvania, Maryland, and 
Virginia, who requested that he would post some troops on 
the frontier to protect the inhabitants. But he continued 
his march, and did not think himself safe until he arrived 
in Philadelphia. 

Colonel Washington was much dissatisfied with the con- 
duct of the regulars in this action; but bestowed great 
praise upon the provincials. His own reputation was much 
increased by his behaviour upon this disastrous occasion. 

The Assembly of Virginia, on receiving intelligence of 
the defeat, and of the flight of Dunbar, resolved that a 
regiment should be raised for the defence of the colony. 
The command was given to Colonel Washington, who was 
permitted to name his field officers. He immediately ap- 
plied to the arduous duties of his post, but was unable to 
cover the frontier. The Indians burnt, plundered, and 
massacred in all directions ; yet the militia could not be 
called into the field. Washington represented the difficul- 



GEORGE WASHINGTON. 49 

ties of his situation to the government — but could gain 
no aid, and was obHged to witness, with feeHngs of deep 
distress, the desolation of the frontier. 

The defeat of Braddock was retaliated in some measure 
by the victory gained by General William Johnson over 
Baron Dieskau, at Lake George ; but the year was unfortu- 
nate for the English expedition. Johnson did not follow 
up his triumph ; and Governor Shirley, who marched against 
Fort Niagara, went no further than Oswego, which post 
was strengthened. 

To form a correct view of the subsequent movements 
in which Washington was engaged, it will be necessary to 
give an account of the general operations of the war. In 
the spring of 1756, England declared war against France. 
Lord Loudon, commander-in-chief, and General Aber- 
crombie soon afterwards arrived in the colonies, and prepa- 
rations were made for active operations ; but they pro- 
ceeded slowly, and nothing was undertaken during the 
year. In the mean time, the able and daring Marquis de 
Montcalm had been appointed commander-in-chief of the 
French forces. He immediately took advantage of the 
want of skill and vigour on the part of the English. He 
surprised and captured Forts Ontario and Oswego, and 
while Lord Loudon proceeded upon an abortive expedition 
against Louisburgh, marched against Fort William Henry, 
situated at the southern extremity of Lake George. 

The fort, which was far from strong, was garrisoned by 
two thousand men under Colonel Monro; while Colonel 
Webb was stationed at Fort Edward, with a force of double 
that amount. While Webb remained thus inactive, Mont- 
calm was concentrating his troops at Fort Ticonderoga, at 
the northern extremity of Lake George. He had suc- 
ceeded in gaining over a large body of Indian allies, which 
with his regular troops formed a body of eight thousand 
men, well provided with artillery for the siege of Fort 



50 GEORGE WASHINGTON. 

William Henry. Descending the lake, he encamped on the 
shore in the immediate vicinity of the fort. Having recon- 
noitered the fort, Montcalm pushed his trenches close to 
the ramparts and opened a heavy cannonade upon the 
body of the fort; while the woods around swarmed with 
his sharp-shooters and Indians, who kept up a galling fire 
on the defenders as they manned the batteries. Unable 
to offer any protracted resistance, Monro sent repeated and 
pressing messages to Webb, who had already examined the 
place, and though pressed by the daring Rogers to allow 
him to attack the enemy with his Rangers, seemed to have 
made up his mind that it could not be successfully de- 
fended. The French commander issued a peremptory 
summons to surrender, but Monro declared he would defend 
his trust to the uttermost extremity. At length his artil- 
lery failed, and when Montcalm sent in an intercepted letter, 
in which Webb affirmed his inability to offer any succour, 
and desired him to make the best terms in his power, the 
brave commander reluctantly signed a capitulation, by 
which he was to march out with all the honours of war, 
and to be escorted to Fort Edward by a body of French 
soldiers. 

The Indian allies of Montcalm, deprived of their pro- 
mised plunder by the terms of this capitulation, could 
hardly be kept in restraint, a fact of which Montcalm had 
already informed the English commander. To the chival- 
rous officers, accustomed to the conduct of European war- 
fare, the necessity of employing these savage allies must 
have been degrading, and the impossibility of restraining 
their atrocities without provoking their hostility has often 
exposed their reputation to unmerited obloquy. It proved 
so on this occasion. The British soldiers, still armed, and 
escorted by a small French force, with their wives and 
children marched with heavy hearts out of the works to 
take their way towards Fort Edward, and scarcely had the 



GEORGE WASHINGTON. 51 

head of the column entered the forest, and become entan- 
gled in a narrow pass, which still retains the name of the 
" Bloody Defile," than a body of two thousand savages, 
concealed in the surrounding thickets, raised the dreadful 
and thrilling war-whoop, and bursting upon them, com- 
menced an indiscriminate massacre. Seized with sudden 
panic, the English fell almost without resistance, and the 
French escort was either unable or unwilling to offer them 
any effectual aid. It is said Montcalm with several of his 
officers rushed into the midst, and vainly endeavoured to 
stay the butchery ; he bared his breast and called upon the 
savages to slay himself rather than his prisoners, and urged 
the latter to defend themselves ', but all his efforts were in 
vain. The terrified fugitives were pursued into the forest, 
where many fell victims to the tomahawk or were carried 
away into slavery; the rest, after much difficulty, suc- 
ceeded in reaching Fort Edward. The fort was then 
destroyed by the French. 

This affair created the greatest consternation throughout 
the northern provinces. Twenty thousand militia were 
called out in Massachusetts in the apprehension of a further 
blow ; but Montcalm, satisfied with the advantages he had 
gained and the terror he had occasioned, withdrew his 
forces into Canada for the winter. 

As it is darkest just before the coming of the day, so the 
termination of the campaign of 1757 left matters in a more 
gloomy state than any of the preceding. The French re- 
tained Louisburg, had mastered Oswego, and commanded 
not only Lake Champlain, but Lake George, threatening 
even the settlements on the Hudson. The Six Nations 
had been obliged to enter into a treaty of neutrality. By 
the possession of Fort Duquesne, the French menaced the 
frontiers of Virginia and Pennsylvania, which were con- 
tinually ravaged by their Indian alHes. ' 

The accession of the energetic Chatham to the premier- 



52 GEORGE WASHINGTON. 

ship of Great Britain, breathed new Hfe into the nation; 
and in the colonies hopes were entertained that the French 
power would soon fall before his vigorous and wise mea- 
sures. General Abercrombie was appointed to the chief 
command of the forces in America, and a plan for the 
campaign of 1758 adopted, which included expeditions 
against Louisburg, Ticonderoga, Crown Point, and Fort 
Duquesne. 

General Abercrombie, commander-in-chief of the British 
forces in America, collecting his troops at Albany, prepared 
for an expedition against Ticonderoga. On the 5th of July, 
fifteen thousand troops, with a formidable train of artillery, 
crossed Lake George, landed on the western shore, and 
commenced their march against the enemy. A fort with- 
in two miles of Ticonderoga fell into Abercrombie's hands, 
and on the 8th he attempted to storm that strong post. A 
severe action of four hours ensued, when the English com- 
mander, having lost nearly two thousand men, ordered a 
retreat. 

An army of fifty thousand men, of whom twenty thou- 
sand were provincials, was collected. The expedition 
against Louisburg was completely successful. That strong 
fortress, which had been heretofore deemed impregnable, 
was this year compelled to surrender to the English forces. 
Colonel Bradstreet, with three thousand men, captured Fort 
Frontignac in Upper Canada. As this place was the maga- 
zine from which supplies were drawn for the French posts 
on the Ohio, its fall contributed to the successful result of 
the expedition against Fort Duquesne. 

The command of the forces destined to act against Fort 
Duquesne, was intrusted to Brigadier-General Joseph 
Forbes. The whole number of troops under his orders was 
seven thousand. Of these 1200 were Highlanders, 350 
'koyaX Americans, 2700 Provincials from Pennsylvania, 
IGOO from Virginia, 250 from Maryland, 150 from North 



GEORGE WASHINGTON. 53 

Carolina, 100 from Delaware, and 1000 wagoners and 
labourers. Among the provincials was a great number of 
experienced rangers — men accustomed from childhood to 
Indian warfare. In the present expedition, the services of 
such men were invaluable. Colonel Washington, who was 
in command of the Virginians, strongly recommended that 
the army should follow Braddock's route, as the expedition 
might be defeated by the delay of cutting a new road over 
the mountains. But Colonel Bouquet persuaded General 
Forbes to adopt a new route ; and accordingly, on the 1st 
of August, 1758, seventeen hundred men were employed 
west of Bedford in constructing a road across the mountains 
to the Susquehanna. 

Before the arrival of the commanding general. Colonel 
Bouquet sent out Major Grant, with thirty-seven officers and 
eight hundred and five privates, to reconnoitre Fort Du- 
quesne and the adjacent country. Though the French had 
spies out to report the progress of their enemies. Major 
Grant succeeded in approaching within two miles of the 
fort unobserved. At that point he left his baggage under 
a guard of a captain and fifty-two men, and, under cover 
of night, marched to within a quarter of a mile of the fort. 
About eleven o'clock the detachment reached the brow of 
the hill, which now bear's the name of Grant's Hill. Major 
Grant, judging from the fact of his having seen no enemy 
on his march, and the silence in the vicfnity of the fort, 
that the garrison was very small, and wishing to keep the 
glory of the capture to himself, sent Major Lewis with two 
hundred and fifty men, to lie in ambush near the baggage, 
on pretence that the enemy might attempt its capture. 
Two officers and fifty men approached the fort and set fire 
to a store-house. The fire was extinguished, but the party 
met with no enemy. 

At })reak of day, dispositions were made for the attack. 
Four hundred men were posted on the hill facing the fort, 
7 



54 GEORGE WASHINGTON. 

to cover the retreat of Ccaptain M'Donald's company, which 
marched with drums beating towards the enemy, to draw 
a party out of the fort. The French and Indians, aroused 
from their shimbers by the music, salhed out in great force 
to the attack. Separating into three divisions, two of them 
were despatched, under cover of the banks of the river, to 
surround the main body of the Enghsh ; the third displayed 
itself before the fort, as if it included the whole strength 
of the garrison. The conjflict then commenced. Captain 
M'Donald was immediately driven upon the main body, and 
Major Grant discovered that he was surrounded. A most 
destructive fire was poured in upon his troops, and they re- 
turned it. The battle became desperate. Major Lewis 
hastened to the relief of Major Grant, but soon found him- 
self attacked on all sides. The troops gave way. Major 
Grant retreated to the baggage, and strove to rally his men. 
As soon as the enemy came up. Captain Bullit, with fifty 
Virginians, attacked them in a furious manner, and thus 
checked the pursuit. Most of his men being killed, how- 
ever, he was forced to give way. Major Grant and Major 
Lewis were captured, but Captain Bullit, although one of 
the last to leave the battle-ground, escaped. This disastrous 
defeat occurred on the 21st of September. The loss of the 
English was two hundred and seventy men killed, forty- 
two wounded, and several prisoners. The loss of the 
French and Indians must have been considerable, but it is 
not known. 

Encouraged by victory, the enemy resolved to attack 
Colonel Bouquet, who had command of 2500 troops, at 
Loyalhanna, before reinforcements could reach him. Accord- 
ingly, on the 12th of October, 1200 French, and 200 Indians, 
under the command of De Vetri, marched and assailed him. 
A well-fought battle of four hours' duration ensued, when the 
French were compelled to retreat, having suffered a severe 



GEORGE WASHINGTON. 55 

loss. Colonel Bouquet had sixty-seven men killed or 
woundf^ in the battle. 

About the 1st of November, General Forbes arrived at 
Loyalhanna with the remainder of the army. A council 
of war was held, and after considerable discussion, it was 
resolved to prosecute the expedition in spite of the lateness 
of the season. Colonel Washington was then sent for- 
ward to take command of the division employed in open- 
ing the road. On the 12tli of November, about three miles 
from camp, he encountered a party of the enemy, killed 
one man and took three prisoners. The fire of Colonel 
Washington's detachment being heard at camp. Colonel 
Mercer, with a number of Virginians, was sent to his aid. 
The two parties approaching in the dusk of the evening, 
mistook each other for enemies. Volleys were exchanged, 
by which a lieutenant and thirteen or fourteen men were 
killed. 

On the 13th, Colonel Armstrong, with 1000 men, pushed 
fbrward to assist Washington in opening the road. General 
Forbes followed soon after, leaving strong garrisons at Bed- 
ford and Loyalhanna. The weather was exceedingly damp 
and chill, and the new road very difficult. When the army 
had arrived within twelve miles of the fort, some Indian 
scouts came and reported that the fort and houses connected 
with it had been burned and abandoned. The army pressed 
on, and arrived at its destination on the 25th of November. 
The general found the works nearly destroyed ; but about 
thirty cabins were standing, and a well-stocked magazine 
was secured. The cannon were not found. Whether the 
French had taken them down the Ohio, or sunk them in 
the river, could not be ascertained. There were about five 
hundred Frenchmen in the fort at the time of the evacua- 
tion, under the command of M. de Lignery. They are 
charged with having allowed the Indians to burn and tor- 
ture their English prisoners^ but of this conclusive evidence 



56 GEORGE WASHINGTON. 

is wanting. The bodies of those who fell in the skirmish 
at Grant's Hill were found scalped and mutilated. iK'lie re- 
mains were buried. Soon afterwards the bones of those who 
fell in Braddock's defeat were collected and consigned to the 
earth. 

The fall of Fort Duquesne was hailed throughout the 
middle provinces as the breaking up of the stronghold of an 
active foe. Immediately after the successful conclusion of 
the campaign, the Delawares sued for peace. Conferences 
M^ere held at the site of old Fort Duquesne, which resulted 
in the conclusion of treaties of peace. General Forbes ordered 
the fort to be repaired, left a garrison of 200 provincial troops 
in it, and another garrison near the Loyalhanna, and 
marched the main army to the other side of the mountains. 
In the next year, Fort Pitt was erected at the site of Fort 
Duquesne. 

The duties of Washington during the successful expedi- 
tion of Forbes had been of the most arduous description. 
His command had opened the way for the main body, and 
made its advance much easier than it could have beeu with- 
out the labours which he superintended in person. His 
vigour and address were duly appreciated by his country- 
men. When he returned to Winchester, he ascertained 
that he had been elected a member of the General Assem- 
bly of Virginia to represent the county of Frederick. 

The frontier of Virginia being relieved from danger, 
Washington thought he might now retire from the service 
without dishonour, and attend to his private affairs. 
About the close of the year, he resigned his commission. 
The officers whom he had commanded were strongly 
attached to him, and before he retired they sent hun an 
address, expressing their high estimate of his private and 
military character. The opinion of these officers was that 
entertained by almost every citizen of the provinces who 
could appreciate merit. At this time was laid the founda- 



GEORGE 'WASHINGTON. 57 

tion of that popularity which sustained Washington amid 
the trials and reverses of the Revolution. 

Not long after he resigned his commission, Washington 
married Mrs. Martha Custis, a young widow, who to a 
large fortune added beauty, intelligence, and amiability. 
Throughout the rest of his toilsome but glorious life, this 
lady was his devoted partner and beloved solace — an orna- 
ment to every sphere in which duty led him to move. 

Washington began his career as a legislator in 1759, 
when he took his seat in the Virginia legislature. There, he 
soon gained a high reputation for industry, intelligence, and 
ability. He seldom spoke, and when he did, his speeches 
never occupied beyond fifteen minutes. But his opinions 
were always treated with respect, because they were formed 
after long and careful thought. In the intervals of his 
legislative service, Washington resided at the beautiful 
Mount Vernon, enjoying the sweets of private life, and 
managing his large estate. He also served for a while as 
magistrate of the county in which his residence was situ- 
ated. This kind of life occupied Washington for about six- 
teen years, when the colonial disturbances, preceding the 
great Revolution, called upon him for more arduous and 
serious labours than any he had yet performed. 

When the British ministry asserted the right of Parlia- 
ment to tax the colonies without allowing them a represent- 
ation, Washington took a decided stand with those gallant 
spirits who were determined to resist such tyranny. He 
was elected to a seat in the first Continental Congress, and 
was among the most earnest and laborious of its members. 
Being recognised as the chief military man in that body, 
he was placed on all committees in which measures of de- 
fence were to be matured. When the actions of the British 
rulers and their instruments drove the patriots to arms — 
when the soil of New England was stained with the blood 
of her sons at Lexington, and when Congress resolved to 



58 GEORGE WASHINGTON". 

organize a regular army, all eyes were turned to Washing- 
ton, as a fit man for the joost of commander-in-chief. 

On the 14th of June, 1775, John Adams nominated him 
for that high office, and the nomination was unanimously 
confirmed. On the succeeding day, when this appoint- 
ment was communicated to Washington, he modestly ex- 
pressed his deep sense of the honour conferred, and a doubt 
of his ability to discharge the duties of such a post, but 
announced his determination to exert every power he jdos- 
sessed in the service of his country. He also stated that 
he would accept no compensation beyond a reimbursement 
of expenses. 

Difficult, indeed, was the task Washington had under- 
taken to perform. He found the British army under Gene- 
ral Gage, besieged m Boston by 14,500 New England 
volunteers, under General Ward. Numerically superior to 
the enemy, the Americans were without a sufficiency of 
arms or ammunition, and almost destitute of discipline. 
On the 17tli of June, before Washington arrived at the 
scene of active operations, was fought the bloody battle of 
Breed's Hill. The Americans, numbering fifteen hundred 
men, under the command of Colonel Prescott, long main- 
tained their rude fortification against the assaults of three 
thousand British regulars, commanded by General Howe ; 
and only retreated when their ammunition failed. One 
thousand and fifty-four of the British were killed or 
wounded, while the Americans lost but about 480 men ; 
among these, however, was the brave and able General 
Joseph Warren, a master spirit among the patriots. This 
battle was considered won by the Americans ; and so it was, 
regarding the results. It showed Washington that the 
men he had been sent to command, had the first virtue of 
good soldiers — determined courage. 

Tlie commander-in-chief, while maintaining a close siege 
of Boston, laboured incessantly to organize and discipline 




59 



GEORGE WASHINGTON. 61 

his army. Reinforcements arrived from Pennsylvania and 
Maryland. But supplies of arms and ammunition came 
slowly. Major-Generals Gates and Lee, with the veteran 
officers of the last French war, aided Washington in intrt)- 
ducing discipline among the troops, and in obtaining suj> 
plies. Of the newly appointed brigadier-generals, Nathaniel 
Greene was the ablest, and he soon won the confidence of 
the commander-in-chief. 

The Americans, who had been made prisoners at 
Bunker's Hill, were indiscriminately thrown into gaol at 
Boston, and treated with little humanity. On the 11th 
of August General Washington addressed a letter to Gene- 
ral Gage on the subject, and informed him that his treat- 
ment of British prisoners should be regulated by that 
which the Americans experienced. General Gage replied 
that the prisoners had been treated with care and kindness, 
but indiscriminately, because he acknowledged no rank 
that was not derived from the king ; and at the same time 
retorted on the Americans the charge of cruelty. General 
Washington replied, "I have taken time, sir, to make a 
strict inquiry, and find the intelligence you have received has 
not the least foundation in truth. Not only your officers 
and soldiers have been treated with the tenderness due to 
fellow citizens and brethren ; but even those execrable par- 
ricides, whose counsel and aid have deluged this country 
with blood, have been protected from the fury of a justly 
enraged jD^ople. You affect, sir, to despise all rank not 
derived from the same source with your own; I cannot 
conceive one more honourable than that which flows from 
the uncorrupted choice of a brave and free people, the 
purest source and original fountain of all power." 

This epistolary correspondence did not suspend military 
operations : some skirmishing took place between the ad- 
vanced parties of the two armies; and the Americans 
fortified themselves on an eminence within half a mile of 



62 GEORGE WASHINGTON. 

the British post on Bunker's Hill. There was a good deal 
of firing on the occasion, without much loss to either side ; 
but it, in some measure, accustomed the colonists to the use 
of arms, the noise of the artillery, and the operations of 
war. 

The American army was extremely deficient in gun- 
powder ; but, in the beginning of September, it received a 
supply of 7000 pounds from Khode Island, procured, it is 
said, from the British forts on the coast of Africa, in ex- 
change for New England rum. Saltpetre was collected in 
all the colonies; powder-mills were erected at Philadelphia 
and New York; and upwards of 100 barrels of powder 
were abstracted by American agents from the magazine at 
Bermuda. 

General Washington soon began to feel the difficulties 
of his situation. He perceived that the expense of niain- 
taining the army far exceeded any estimate of Congress, 
and was very uneasy on the subject. The time for which 
the continental soldiers (so the troops enlisted for the 
American army were named) were engaged to serve, was 
drawing to a close, and the danger of very short enlist- 
ments was felt. A council of war, therefore, unanimously 
agreed that the men about to be levied should be engaged 
till the 1st of December, 1776. This was a very inadequate 
remedy for the evil, which was severely felt in the course 
of the war; but some hopes of a reconciliation between 
Britain and the colonies were still entertained. 

On the 10th of October General Gage sailed for Britain, 
and the command of the British army devolved on General 
(afterwards Viscount) Howe, who issued a proclamation, 
condemning to military execution such of the inhabitants 
of Boston as should be caught attempting to leave the 
town without a written permission. 

The troops in Boston Avere reduced to a very uncom- 
fortable condition : they could not procure provisions and 



GEORGE WASHINGTON. 63 

other necessaries from the country, and their maritime 
suppHes were much interrupted ; for, on the 9th of October, 
the Assembly of Massachusetts Bay resolved to fit out 
armed vessels for the defence of the American coast ; and 
afterwards appointed courts of admiralty, to condemn such 
captured vessels as should be proved to belong to persons 
hostile to the united American colonies. Privateers were 
soon at sea; and in a few days took an ordnance ship from 
Woolwich, and several store-ships, with valuable cargoes, 
which afforded a seasonable supply to the American camp, 
wliile the loss was severely felt by the British army in 
Boston. Congress also soon resolved to fit out and com- 
mission ships of war. 

But although the British army in Boston was in very 
disagreeable circumstances, and success attended the naval 
operations of the Americans, yet the afiairs of the pro- 
vinces wore no flattering aspect. The term for which many 
of the men had enlisted was about to expire, and they 
showed no inclination to renew their engagements unless 
they received a high remuneration for their services. Irri- 
tation of spirit had made them fly to arms ; and, in the 
fervour of their zeal, they would at first have readily en- 
gaged to serve during the war : but the opportunity was 
lost, and Congress severely felt the error in the course of 
the struggle ; for the patriotism of the people was ephe- 
meral, and their zeal for freedom was soon absorbed in 
considerations of interest. At the same time the colonial 
treasury was but ill-replenished, and the provincial paper- 
money soon became depreciated. In these circumstances 
Congress, wishing by a bold movement to put an end to the 
war, or at least by the splendour of a successful operation 
to reanimate the zeal of the people, was desirous that an 
attack should be made on Boston ; but a council of war 
deemed the measure inexpedient. 

The hostile armies remained quiet during the severest part 
8 



64 GEORGE WASHINGTON. 

of the winter. But early in the morning of the 14th of 
February, 1776, General Howe sent a detachment over the 
ice to Dorchester Neck, and burned a few houses. This 
expedition merely served to make the Americans more 
sensible of the importance of establishing themselves on 
Dorchester Heights. General Washington was inclined to 
make an attack on Boston : to that, however, a council of 
war did not agree ; but proposed to take possession of Dor- 
chester Heights, which are on the south of Boston, as 
Bunker's Hill is on the north, and so render the British 
post in Boston untenable. The measure was resolved on, 
and preparations made for carrying it into execution. 
Accordingly, on the evening of the 4th of March, a strong 
detachment silently crossed Dorchester Neck, arrived at 
their places of destination, and laboured incessantly in 
raising fortifications. In order to conceal this movement, 
the Americans had, for some days before, kept up a heavy 
fire on Boston, with little effect ; and it had been as ineffect- 
ually returned by the British. 

The noise of artillery prevented the pickaxes and other 
implements of the Americans from being heard, although 
the ground was hard frozen, and could not easily be pene- 
trated. So incessantly did they labour, that during the 
night, they raised two forts, with other defences, which in 
the morning presented to the British a very formidable 
appearance. On viewing these works. General Howe re- 
marked, that the rebels had done more in one night than 
his whole army would have done in a month. He deter- 
mined to dislodge them, and made the necessary prepara- 
tions for attacking them the next day. But in the night 
a violent storm arose, which drove some of his vessels 
ashore on Governor's Island ; and in the morning it rained 
so heavily that the attack could not be made. 

General Howe called a council of war, which was of 
opinion that the town of Boston ought to be evacuated as 



GEORGE WASHINGTON. 65 

soon as possible; since the Americans had got time to 
strengthen their works, so as to render an attack on them 
very hazardous. For their own defence, the provincials had 
provided a number of barrels filled with stones and sand, 
ready to be rolled down on the assailants as they ascended 
the hill ; a device which would have broken the line of the 
most steady and intrepid troops, and thrown them into con- 
fusion. That the heights of Dorchester had been so long 
neglected may appear surprising ; but, during winter the 
American army was both weak and ill provided, and Gene- 
ral Howe had no troops to spare. 

In Boston, all was bustle and confusion ; the troo]3s and 
the friends of the British government preparing to quit the 
town. General Howe was desirous of removing all his stores 
of every kind; and his adherents wished to carry ofi' all 
their effects. In the view of abandoning the town, the 
soldiery were guilty of the most shameful excesses, plun- 
dering the shops and houses, and destroying what they could 
not take away. About four o'clock in the morning of Sun- 
day, the 17th of March, the troops, about 7000 in number, 
and some hundreds of loyal inhabitants, began to embark ; 
and they were all on board and under sail before ten. The 
evacuation of the place was so sudden that an adequate num- 
ber of transports had not been prepared, and much confusion 
and inconvenience were experienced on board. The fleet, 
however, remained several days in Nantucket roads, and 
burnt the block-house in Castle Island, and demolished the 
fortifications. A considerable quantity of stores was left 
behind in Boston. 

General Washington was soon informed of the evacuation 
of Boston, and took prompt measures for preserving the 
peace of the town. He soon entered it, amidst the trium- 
phant gratulations of the citizens, whose joy on their deliver- 
ance, from what they considered the degrading oppression 
of a British army, was enthusiastic. At first it Was not 



66 GEORGE WASHINGTON. 

known to what quarter General Howe would direct his 
course ; but, apprehensive of an immediate attack on New 
York, General Washington, on the day after the evacuation, 
despatched five regiments under General Heath, towards 
that city, and soon followed with the main body of his 
army. 

In a few days it was ascertained that General Howe, in- 
stead of sailing to the southward, had steered for Halifax. 
But he left some cruisers to watch the entrance into Boston, 
and to give notice of the evacuation to such British vessels 
as were destined for that port. Notwithstanding that pre- 
caution, however, several ships and transports, ignorant of 
what had happened, sailed into the harbour, and became 
prizes to the Americans, who, by their naval captures, pro- 
cured a most seasonable supply of arms and ammunition. 
In this w^ay, Lieutenant-Colonel Campbell, with nearly 300 
Higlilanders, after a brave resistance was taken by some 
American privateers. 

General Howe remained a considerable time at Halifax, 
to refresh his troops, exhausted hy the fatigues and privations 
of the blockade ; and General Washington marched to New 
York. 

In the mean time, small armies had been sent into 
Canada, under the command of General Montgomery and 
Colonel Arnold. These were very unfortunate. After 
surmounting incredible difficulties in their march, and en- 
during the severities of winter while badly provided, they 
appeared before Quebec. The inhabitants supported the 
able Governor Carleton, in his measures of defence. The 
Americans were repulsed. General Montgomery killed, and 
many of his troops made prisoners. Colonel Arnold then 
retreated with the remnant of the forces beyond the reach 
of the enemy. Other misfortunes were experienced by the 
Americans in the north. The army was almost destroyed 



GEORGE WASHINGTON. 67 

by the small pox and privations. Arnold was defeated, 
after most gallant exertions, upon Lake Champlain. 

In the south the patriots had a powerful body of tories 
to contend against, and both sides displayed bitter hostility. 
But Patrick Henry, in Virginia, and Rutledge and Moul- 
trie in the Carolinas, maintained the good cause with elo- 
quent voices and vigorous actions. Before the main army 
under Washington resumed active operations in the vicinity 
of New York, a conflict occurred at Charleston, South Caro- 
lina, the result of which greatly raised the hopes of the 
patriots. As early as April, 1776, information had been 
received at Charleston that an attack was contemplated, 
and President Rutledge prepared to meet it. General 
Charles took command of the army, assembled at that 
point, consisting of five thousand men. A fort on Sulli- 
van's Island, guarding the harbour, was commanded by 
Colonel William Moultrie. In the beginning of June, a 
British fleet under Sir Peter Parker, having on board a 
large army under General Clinton, appeared off the harbour, 
and on the morning of the 28th, the attack commenced. 
Troops were landed at Long Island, and a furious cannon- 
ade was opened upon the fort. But while the fire of the 
British made no impression on the palmetto wood of wliich 
the fort was constructed, Moultrie's guns did a great deal of 
execution. Two frigates were reduced to wrecks, and one 
was grounded and burnt. The attack closed at nightfall, 
and it was not renewed next day. A few days afterwards, 
the troops were re-embarked, and the fleet sailed for New 
York. Colonel Moultrie received high praise for his gal- 
lant defence of the fort, which received his name. The 
moral effect of this repulse of the enemy was incalculable 
throughout the country. 

The first object of the war had been a redress of 
grievances. But some of the leading patriots had con- 
templated raising the standard of independence, believing 



68 GEORGE WASHINGTON. 

that step to be necessary to the liberties of the country. 
Advocates of independence appeared in Congress. The 
subject was agitated in all circles. The " Common Sense" 
pamphlet of Thomas Paine had a vast influence in favour 
of the decisive measure. At length, the several colonies 
were directed to organize republican governments, and they 
complied. Some of the provincial Assemblies passed reso- 
lutions in favour of independence. On the 7th of June, 
1776, Richard Henry Lee moved a resolution to that 
effect, and the question was debated for several days, being 
then postponed till the 1st of July. In the mean time, a 
committee was a23pointed to draw up a "Declaration of 
Independence." On the 1st of July, the debate was re- 
sumed, and the same day, the question was decided in 
the affirmative. On the 4th of July the great document 
was signed, and published to the world. Washington was 
now commander-in-chief in the service of the United States 
of America. 

New York was now the centre of Washington's opera- 
tions. That city had always been the chief seat of Tory 
influence, and though Ex-governor Tryon had been obliged 
to fly, he still remained on board a vessel at Sandy Hook, 
and was in constant communication with the royalists. It 
was suspected, and not without reason, that the most dan- 
gerous plots were being hatched in secret, while the provi- 
sional congress seemed to remain either unconscious or 
paralyzed. 

No sooner had Washington arrived at New York to as- 
sume the command of the forces, than his attention was 
directed to this alarming state of things ; and through his 
earnest expostulation, a secret committee was apjDointed 
with power to apprehend suspected persons. This provi- 
dential foresight led to the discovery of an insidious scheme, 
which, had it succeeded, might have given a totally different 
issue to the impending struggle. Tryon's agents were found 



GEORGE WASHINGTON. 69 

to be actively engaged in corrupting the American soldiers 
with British gold, the mercenary infection had even seized 
upon Washington's own guard, and a plan had been formed 
for seizing and carrying him aboard an English ship. One 
of the soldiers was found guilty by a court-martial, and 
executed ; some of the guilty suspected were thrown into 
prison, among whom was the mayor himself. The head 
of the confederacy was broken; but there yet remained 
enough of the Tory leaven to occasion disquietude and 
justify a vigilant severity. 

Meanwhile, everything had been done, consistent with 
the limited means at Washington's command, to protect 
New York against Howe's anticipated attack. Putnam had 
sunk obstructions in the North and East rivers; batteries 
had been established in the islands and passages ; and two 
forts had been hastily erected, to command the compara- 
tively narrow passage of the Hudson, a few miles above 
the city, and before it expands into the broad lake-like 
basin of the Tappan Sea. These were Fort Washington, 
at the northern end of New York Island, and Fort Lee, 
on the opposite shore of New Jersey. The troops already 
at New York, Congress had determined to reinforce by 
13,800 militia from New England, New York, and New 
Jersey; while 10,000 more from Pennsylvania, Delaware, 
and Maryland were to form " a flying camp," to cover and 
protect the neighbouring state of New Jersey. With these 
imperfect defences, and this body of ill-organized, and, as 
he must have known them to be, inefficient levies, Wash- 
ington anxiously but firmly awaited the approach of his 
more powerful adversary. 

At length, on the 28tli of June, the British ships ap- 
peared off New York, and a few days after. General Howe 
landed on Staten Island, where he was warmly welcomed 
by the Tories, and received the promise of co-operation 
from the loyalists of Long Island and New Jersey. A few 



70 GEORGE WASHINGTON. 

days after his arrival, and whilst an attack upon New York 
might be daily expected, Washington received the news of 
the passing of the Declaration of Independence, which 
raised the spirits of the army to the highest pitch. The 
regiments were paraded and the Declaration read, amidst 
the most enthusiastic plaudits. The picture of the king, 
which had hitherto stood like a tutelary genius in the 
Town Hall, was torn down and destroyed, and the royal 
effigy converted into revolutionary bullets. 

The expected attack was, however, for some time deferred. 
The English ministry had despatched Admiral Lord Howe 
from England with large reinforcements, such as, together 
with the loyalist rising, upon which they seem ever to have 
counted, would prove, they imagined, amply sufficient to 
suppress the insurrection. He now arrived to his brother's 
assistance, furnished also with proposals for an accommoda- 
tion, which were to be tried before resorting to further 
hostilities. A circular letter to the royal governors, stating 
the terms proposed for a reconciliation, together with a 
general offer of pardon, were sent on shore under a flag of 
truce, and were forwarded by Washington to Congress. It 
is possible that, had Howe's arrival been somewhat earlier, 
these proposals might have in some degree protracted the 
hesitations in that body, and have sown division in the 
public mind ; but could have hardly produced any decided 
effect, inasmuch as they left the matters in dispute mainly 
untouched, and offered no security but the royal clemency. 
As it was, the Rubicon had been passed — the Declaration 
of Independence put forth, and the only effect of the pro- 
clamation was to unite the people more closely together. 
Indeed, so for from dreading its effects. Congress caused it 
to be published in the newspapers, in order " that the few 
whom hopes of moderation and justice had still kept in 
suspense, might now be convinced" that the valour alone 
of their country is to save its liberties. 



GEORGE WASHINGTON". 71 

Although provided with an army and fleet sufficient, as it 
might well seem, to put down resistance by force, both General 
Howe and his brother were sincerely anxious to effect, if pos- 
sible, a peaceable solution of the quarrel. Having, to their 
great regret, failed in their appeal to the American public, 
the Howes next endeavoured to open a personal communi- 
cation with Washington. For this purpose, a boat was sent 
with a letter addressed " George Washington, Esq.," under 
which superscription it was however returned. They next 
despatched Colonel Patterson, adjutant-general of the 
British army, who was introduced into the presence of 
the American commander, and presented another letter 
similarly addressed. But this also Washington declined to 
receive, upon the ground, that, as his public capacity was 
well known, the letter ought to be suitably directed, or that 
it would ap]^)ear to be a merely private communication. A 
conference on the subject of the disputes then took place 
between the colonel and Washington, but though conducted 
with perfect courtesy on both sides, it terminated in nothing 
satisfactory. " I find," said Washington, " you are only 
empowered to grant pardons; we have committed no offence, 
we need no pardon." Soon after. Colonel Palfrey, paymas- 
ter-general of the American army, rejDaired on board Lord 
Howe's ship to negotiate a change of prisoners. His Lord- 
ship took this occasion to lament that the fear of displeasing 
the king had prevented his public recognition of the rank 
of General Washington, for whom he professed the highest 
respect. With these courteous overtures terminated for the 
present all prospect of a reconciliation. 

Two months had elapsed since the English general 
landed on Staten Island, and he had now been joined by 
all his reinforcements, swelling his army to 24,000 men, 
well trained, well provided, and led by able and experienced 
officers. Meanwhile Washington's forces had increased, by 
the arrival of militia, to about the same number, but 



72 GEORGE WASHINGTON. 

vastly different in organization and equipment. A hetero- 
geneous medley, hurriedly gathered together from the differ- 
ent states, they brought along with them their sectional 
jealousies and disgusts — the wealthy gentlemen of the 
middle and southern states revolting at associating, on a 
footing of equality, with the officers of the northern and 
eastern militia, who, though inferior to none in genuine 
chivalry, were often of a low rank in society, and in manner 
and bearing hardly raised above the level of their fellow 
comrades from the plough. Overbearing contempt on one 
hand, and wounded pride on the other, bred quarrels and 
disorders which threatened the most serious results, and 
called for vigorous but kindly remonstrance on the part of 
Washington. We are reminded here, as at every step, of 
the immense moral influence which he had already acquired 
over the minds of his countrymen — an influence alone able 
to conciliate and to control the ever-recurring discords and 
discouragements which beset the infancy of the republic. 
"The General most earnestly entreats the officers and 
soldiers to consider, that they can no way assist our enemies 
more effectually, than by making divisions among them- 
selves ; that the honour and success of our army, and the 
safety of our bleeding country depend upon harmony and 
good agreement with each other ; that the provinces are all 
united to oppose the common enemy, and all distinctions 
sunk in the name of an American. To make this name 
honourable, and to preserve the liberty of our country, 
ought to be our only emulation, and he will be the best 
soldier and the best patriot who contributes most to this 
glorious work, whatever his station, and from whatever 
part of the continent he may come." This spirited appeal 
had for the present the effect of putting a stop to dissensions, 
which could only be effectually repressed by a more efficient 
organization of the army. 

In the expectation that Howe would direct his attack by 



GEORGE WASHINGTON-. 73 

way of Long Island, a body of nine thousand men had been 
encamped at Brooklyn, protected by a line of works exe- 
cuted under the superintendence of General Greene, ex- 
tending from Wallabout Bay on the East river to Gowan's 
Cove on New York Bay. In advance was a range of 
wooded heights, crossed directly by two roads, while a 
third turned their eastern extremity near the shore of the 
bay, and a fourth, by falling into the Jamaica road, the 
western. The central passes, leading over the hills, were 
guarded and fortified, and orders had been given carefully 
to watch over them all. But General Greene, to whom the 
command was intrusted, and who perfectly understood the 
ground, happened to fall ill, and the command devolved on 
Putnam, who was not so well acquainted with it; and by some 
neglect or want of foresight, the Jamaica road was left 
without adequate protection, neither was a proper system 
of communication kept up between the different posts. 

Such was the position of the Americans when the British 
troops landed on Long Island, extending their line along the 
southern side of the heights which intervened between 
them and the American camp. Opposite the middle of the 
heights was De Heister with the centre composed of Hes- 
sians, the left wing under General Grant prepared to attack 
by the lower road, while General Clinton, supported by 
Earl Percy and General Cornwallis, advanced at the head 
of the right wing towards the unprotected" Jamaica road, 
with the purpose of turning the American left, placing them 
between two fires, and cutting off their retreat to the 
camp. 

This combination, as sagaciously planned as it. was 
vigorously executed, proved, notwithstanding the most 
resolute bravery on the part of the Americans at particular 
points, entirely successful. 

About nine o'clock at night Clinton's division advanced 
steadily and swiftly towards the Jamaica road, and after 



74 GEORGE WASHINGTON. 

capturing a patrol, a little before day-break had attained 
this spot, the key of the position, without obstacle. Grant 
meanwhile advanced at midnight along the lower road, and 
thus came into contact with the American troops under 
Lord Sterling, while at day-break De Heister assaulted the 
American centre posted upon the crest of the hills. One 
of the ships meanwhile kept thundering on the American 
right. The object of the English was to draw the atten- 
tion of their enemy from what was passing on their left, 
but no sooner were they aware that Clinton stood prepared to 
act on the offensive, than they advanced to the attack with 
vigour, and, after a strenuous resistance, succeeded in forcing 
the passages, and gradually driving in their opponents. 

Meanwhile Clinton, unopposed on the Jamaica road, 
marched rapidly through Bedford, and threw himself upon 
the left flank of the Americans, who, finding themselves in 
a way to be cut off, endeavoured to retreat to the camp, 
but were intercepted and driven back upon the Hessians, 
or forced to fly into the woods. Cornwallis at the same 
time pushed round to cut off Lord Sterling, who was taken 
prisoner, his corps with great difticulty effecting their re- 
treat. Sullivan, hemmed in as he was by De Heister on 
one side and Clinton on the other, was obliged to surren- 
der. The defeat of the Americans was complete at all 
points, and upwards of a thousand prisoners remained in 
the hands of the enemy. Such as escaped fell back with- 
in the lines at Brooklyn, closely pursued by the victorious 
Encflish. 

o 

Inexperienced as were the Americans in the science of 
war,, having so extensive and broken a line to defend, 
without cavalry, and attacked by a vastly superior and 
highly disciplined force, the issue of the combat might have 
been foreseen, and Washington, it is evident, almost antici- 
pated it. 

During the action he had crossed over to the camp at 



GEORGE WASHINGTON. 75 

Brooklyn, now crowded with disheartened fugitives, and 
menaced with an immediate attack by the English, flushed 
with victory and eager to be led on to the assault. The 
moment was fearfully critical. Had the counsels of the 
English officers been as vigorous as the temper of their 
troops was excited, the lines would have been at once 
stormed and probably carried. But whether General Howe 
dreaded the result of thus attacking a desperate foe, or 
supposed that with the co-operation of the ships the enemy 
could not escape him, he preferred to make regular ap- 
proaches, and began immediately to open trenches. The 
rain poured incessantly for two days, and the Americans 
were exposed to it unsheltered. Had the English ships 
advanced up the East river, and stationed themselves be- 
tween Brooklyn and New York, nothing could have saved 
the camp ; but a strong north-east wind had hitherto pre- 
vented them from doing so. Every moment was precious, 
when a sudden shift of wind would cut off the possibility 
of flight. It was known besides, that Clinton was threat- 
ening to send part of his army across the sound, thus 
menacing New York. Washington called a council of war, 
at which it was resolved to retreat instantly. The hour 
of eight in the evening of the 29th of August was fixed 
upon for the embarkation. Everything had been pre- 
pared, and the troops were ready to march down, but the 
force of the wind and ebb tide delayed them for some 
hours, and seemed as if it would entirely frustrate the en- 
terprise. The enemy, toiling hard at the approaches, were 
now so near, that the blows of their pickaxes and instru- 
ments could be distinctly heard, while the noise of these 
operations deadened all sound of the American movements, 
which were carried on in the deepest silence. About two in 
the morning, a thick fog settling over Long Island pre- 
vented all sight of what was going on, and the wind shift- 
ing round to the south-west, the soldiers entered the boats, 



76 GEORGE WASHINGTON. 

and were rapidly transferred to the opposite shore. So 
complete were the arrangements that almost all the artil- 
lery, with the provisions, horses, wagons, and ammunition 
safely crossed over to New York. Washington, who, from 
the commencement of the action till he had seen the troops 
placed out of danger, had never closed his eyes, and been 
rarely out of* the saddle, was himself the last to quit the 
shore. 

Scarcely had the fog cleared off, when the British saw 
with amazement the last American boat, which had re- 
turned to fetch off some munitions, fast nearing the oppo- 
site bank of the East river. Washington had saved his 
army. Several thousand men were still assembled in New 
York Island, but their leader was but too sensible how 
httle reliance could be placed upon them. 

He now made earnest appeals to Congress to adopt more 
vigorous measures, offering greater inducements for enlist- 
ment and prolonging the term of service. But the ap- 
peals were vain ; Congress had not the power to aid him ; 
and he was compelled to witness the gradual melting away 
of his army. 

Taking advantage of the discouragement among the 
troops, the Howes now sent a prisoner. General John Sul- 
livan, to Congress, to make overtures of accommodation. 
After a short debate, that gallant body determined to main- 
tain the stand it had taken, to the last extremity. The 
Howes then appealed by proclamation to the people ; but 
the proclamation did not make many converts to the royal 
cause. 

By his recent triumph Howe had acquired the possession 
of Long Island, and was preparing to pass over the East 
river and menace New York; but where the blow would 
fall, what were the numbers, plans, and dispositions of the 
English army, Washington knew not with any certainty. 
To prevent surprise, he had removed the main body of 



GEORGE WASHINGTON. 77 

his army to the heights of Harlem north of the city, over- 
looking the Harlem river, sending across a portion of the 
stores and baggage, and establishing his head-quarters at 
Morrisiana, whence he could better watch the movements 
of the English on the opposite side of the strait. A con- 
siderable force still remained in the city under the com- 
mand of Putnam, ready either to act in its defence or re- 
treat, as the case might require. 

Howe's designs soon became apparent enough, and they 
were crowned with entire success. He declined bombard- 
ing the city, which contained a great number of adherents, 
and would be desirable as quarters for his army. Instead 
of this, sending several ships up the North and East rivers, 
the fire from which swept entirely across the island, he be- 
gan under cover of it, to land his troops at Kip's Bay, about 
midway between New York and Harlem. Works had 
been thrown up on the spot, sufficient at least to maintain 
a resistance till further succour could arrive ; but no sooner 
did the English set foot on shore, than the troops posted in 
them were seized with a panic, broke and fled, communi- 
cating their terror to two New England brigades, who on 
the first alarm of a landing had been despatched to their 
support. It was at this moment that Washington, hurry- 
ing to the scene of action, fell in with the entire party 
retreating in disorder without firing a single shot. The 
sight was too much for his excited .feelings, and for once 
his equanimity gave way before a sense of the almost 
hopelessness of his task. He gallopped to and fro among 
the fugitives, entreating them to face the enemy, he struck 
them with the flat of his sword, snapped his pistols at 
them, and utterly unable to stay the rout, dashed his hat 
on the ground, exclaiming, "Are these the men with 
whom I am to defend America !" Abandoned by all, and 
rooted to the spot, he seemed not merely incapable of 
saving himself by flight, but even as though he invoked 



78 GEORGE WASHINGTON. 

destruction; and had it not been for his officers, who 
seized his bridle and forcibly dragged him off the field, he 
would, in all probability, have been shot or taken prisoner. 

As the fugitive troops retired, they encountered a rein- 
forcement hastening to their support, and, ashamed of their 
former panic, faced about and desired to be led against the 
enemy. But unable as he was to place any firm reliance 
upon them, Washington judged it more prudent to fall 
back upon Harlem Heights. 

By this time the British officers had landed all their 
forces, and had they pushed vigorously forward would, by 
placing themselves across the island midway between 
Washington at Harlem and Putnam in New York, haves 
effectually cut off the latter, and compelled him to surren- 
der. Orders had been despatched to him instantly to 
evacuate the city, and in the midst of hurry and confusion 
he took the lower road by Greenwich, leaving behind him 
his heavy artillery and a large quantity of stores and pro- 
visions. The delay of the British, generally attributed to 
the general's stopping for refreshment, alone prevented his 
being cut off with his entire division, and as it was, three 
hundred of his men fell into the hands of the enemy. 

No sooner had he departed than a detachment of the 
royal troops entered the city, where they were warmly re- 
ceived by the Tories. The bitterest feeling existed be- 
tween the two hostile parties, and it was fearfully exempli- 
fied by means of an accident that occurred a few nights 
after the occupation. This was a fire, which broke out in 
the dead of night, and, owing to the drought of the season 
and a strong south wind, increased with alarming rapidity. 
Upwards of a thousand buildings were consumed, and but 
for the exertions of the soldiers and sailors the whole city 
would probably have been destroyed. In the excited state 
of party feeling, it was said that the "Sons of Liberty" 
were the incendiaries, with a view to drive out the army, 



GEORGE WASHINGTON". 79 

and several suspected persons were hurled into the blazing 
buildings by the soldiers. General Howe, in the mean 
while, had taken up a position with the main body of his 
troops in front of Washington's intrenchments at Harlem, 
extending across the island from the East to the North 
river, supported at each extremity by his ships. Within 
their intrenchments the "morale" of the American troops 
revived, they reflected with shame on the events of the 
day, and determined to retrieve their character on the first 
opportunity. Volunteers came forward next morning, and 
under the command of Colonel Knowlton went out to re- 
connoitre the enemy. A party of the British came for- 
ward to meet them, and a spirited skirmish ensued, in 
which the very same men who the day before had fled so 
disgracefully, behaved with such spirit as decidedly to have 
the best of the encounter, though at the loss of their gal- 
lant commander, who had led them into action. This in- 
cident revived the drooping confidence of the troops, and 
was no less encouraging to Washington himself, after his 
recent and bitter mortification. He occujDied himself dili- 
gently with strengthening his lines, which Howe con- 
sidered too formidable to be attacked with prudence, until 
he had obtained reinforcements. 

While the two armies thus remained inactive in face of 
each other, Washington was earnestly engaged in corres- 
pondence with Congress. The state of his army, though 
somewhat raised from despondency by the recent success, 
was deplorable. Hospitals were wanting to receive the 
numerous sick, who were exposed almost unsheltered to 
the inclemency of the weather. Desertions were constantly 
taking place, and the very next reverse might occasion the 
entire dissolution of the army. 

Reluctant as Congress had been to establish a standing 
army, they had now drawn the sword and cast away the 
scabbard, and the recent losses seconded so powerfully the 
10 



80 GEORGE WASHINGTON. 

expostulations of Washington, that a scheme was drawn 
up in harmony with his suggestions, with which a com- 
mittee of delegates repaired to the camp at Harlem, in 
order to confer with him on the subject. The new army 
was to consist of eighty-eight battalions, to be provided for 
by the respective states in due proportion, and the soldiers, 
who received a bounty for enlistment, were required to 
serve for tJie whole war, — the system of limited enlistments 
having been found the great obstacle to discipline. Great 
difficulties however were still to be surmounted. The 
selection of officers for their respective quotas was at first 
to be left to the states themselves, instead of confided to 
the commander-in-chief; but a midway course was after- 
wards agreed upon, by which the states were to send com- 
missioners to arrange the appointments with him. 

While engaged in deep and anxious conference with the 
delegates of Congress, Washington had also to keep a watch- 
ful eye on the movements of his skilful adversary. The 
two armies had now maintained the same position for 
three weeks, when Howe, finding the lines at Harlem too 
strong to be attacked with any chance of success, deter- 
mined upon a change of tactics. He first sent some ships 
of war up the Hudson, which, in spite of the American 
batteries, succeeded in forcing a passage, thus intercepting 
the communication, and preventing supplies from reaching 
Washington by the river. Leaving behind him a force to 
cover New York, he transferred the rest of his army to 
Pell's Point on Long Island Sound, and took up a position 
on the neighbouring heights of New Rochelle. Hence, 
having received a strong reinforcement of Hessians and 
Waldeckers under General Knyphausen, he threatened a 
movement in the rear of Washington, so as to cut him off 
from all communication either by land or water, or compel 
him to a general action. A council of war was now called, 
when, to traverse this design, it was resolved to evacuate 



GEORGE WASHINGTON. 81 

the island and advance into the interior. The question 
arose, whether a garrison should be left behind in Fort 
Washington, a measure which seemed of little use, inas- 
much as the British had obtained the command of the 
river. Washington and Lee were opposed to this plan, but 
it was strenuously urged by Greene, who considered the fort 
to be sufficiently strong to resist an attack from the enemy. 
It was supposed too that the besieged would always be 
able to escape, if needful, by crossing the river; and a gar- 
rison of two thousand men was accordingly left on it, 
under the command of Colonel Magaw. 

The fort stands on bold ground, overlooking the Hudson, 
and the approach to it on the land side is difficult, and ob- 
structed with wood. Next morning, the enemy unex- 
pectedly attacked it in four columns, at as many different 
points. Notwithstanding the most strenuous resistance on 
the part of the Americans, who, firing from behind the 
rocks and trees, which impeded the ascent, cut off four 
hundred of their assailants, such was the vigour of the 
attack, and the emulation between the Germans and 
English, that the outworks were successively carried, and 
the skirmishers driven back in tumultuous confusion with- 
in the body of the place. 

During the approach of the enemy, Washington, with 
Putnam, Greene, and other officers, had crossed the river, 
and were ascending to the fort, when seeing that they were 
running the risk of capture for an insufficient object, they 
returned. It is said, that from the post whence he 
intently watched the onset, Washington could see his 
soldiers bayoneted, while imploring mercy on their knees, 
and was unable to restrain his tears. 

The assailants having forced their way within a hun- 
dred yards of the fort. Colonel Magaw was again summoned 
to surrender. With a confused and disheartened crowd 
of fugitives, who could not be brought to man the lines, 



82 GEORGE WASHINGTON. 

he had no alternative but to comply ; and thus two thou- 
sand men, witli a considerable quantity of artillery, fell into 
the hands of the victorious English — another limb lopped 
off the feeble and disorganized American army ! 

Scarcely had Fort Washington fallen, when a body of 
six thousand men, under Lord Cornwallis, one of the most 
active and energetic of the British officers, crossed the 
Hudson to Fort Lee, to pursue the American army. The 
fort was hurriedly abandoned, with a heavy loss of pro- 
visions and stores, and the garrison joined the main body, 
which rapidly retreated before the English. Such was the 
profound discouragement occasioned by the then recent suc- 
cesses, that Washington found his army rapidly falling to 
pieces, and in danger of utter and speedy dissolution. 
During the march, the term of enlistment of the corps 
forming the "Flying Camp," for the protection of New 
Jersey, expired, and no persuasion could induce them to 
enlist. Destitute of every necessary, broken by repeated 
defeats, and so closely pursued by a victorious enemy, a 
feeUng of despair succeeded to the overstrained enthusi- 
asm which had at first animated them, and the only Avon- 
der is that even the shadow of an army should have re- 
mained on foot.* 

Washington retreated across the Passaic and the Raritan, 
closely followed by Lord Cornwallis. The destruction of 
the bridge over the Raritan delayed the enemy some hours, 
and saved the baggage of the Americans. Cornwallis had 
been ordered not to advance beyond Brunswick, otherwise 
it is probable he would have overtaken Washington, and 
destroyed the little army of patriots. At length, with about 
1500 men, the American general succeeded in placing the 
Delaware between him and his pursuers. Howe might still 
have ]3assed the river, but he did not attempt it, contenting 
himself with the conquest of New Jersey, and the issumg 

* Bartlett. 



GEORGE WASHINGTON. 83 

of proclamations, of whose offers many timid friends of 
freedom took advantage. 

The capture of General Charles Lee, by a British detach- 
ment, added to the campaign's succession of disasters. That 
distinguished officer neglected to obey the orders of Wash- 
ington, and suffered himself to be surprised by the enemy. 
Not even their recent victories elated the British so much 
as this capture : for Lee had a higher reputation than any 
officer in the army of patriots. 

It was a gloomy period for the friends of independence. 
The British believed the war was about terminating in their 
favour, and many Americans who had hoped most strongly 
at the commencement of the contest now despaired. At 
such a time, the real greatness of the commander-in-chief 
was gloriously displayed. He did not despair, and such 
was the influence of his noble example that Congress made 
extraordinary exertions to meet the crisis. The authorit}^ 
of a military dictator was conferred upon Washington. 
" Happy is it for this country," said Congress, in their letter 
to him on this occasion, " that the general of its forces can 
safely be intrusted with the most unlimited power, and 
neither personal security, liberty, or property be in the 
least degree endangered thereby !" Washington immediately 
made use of his extraordinary powers to recruit and organize 
his army. 

The winter having set in with much severity, Howe and 
Cornwallis returned to New York, and the British army 
was distributed in cantonments along the Delaware. Small 
detachments were stationed at Bordentown, Burlington, 
Black Horse, and Mount Holly, while three regiments of 
Hessians and a troop of light horse under the command of 
Colonel Rahl were posted at Trenton. Washington, eager 
for an opportunity to revive the spirits of his countrymen, 
resolved to take advantage of the dispersed condition of 
the enemy, and tbeir relaxed discipline at the festivities of 



84 GEORGE WASHINGTON". 

Christmas, to strike an effective blow. Reinforcements had 
more than doubled the number of his troops, and he felt 
strong enough for active operations. Having matured his 
plans, he divided his forces into three corps, with the first 
of which, accompanied by Greene and Sullivan, he projDosed 
to pass the Delaware at M'Kon key's ferry, nine miles above 
Trenton, and 'fall upon the Hessians in that town. The 
second division, under General Irwin, was to cross over at 
Trenton ferry, and by stopping the bridge over the Assum- 
pink, cut off the enemy's retreat, while the third, under 
General Cadwallader, was to cross lower down from Bristol 
over to Burlington. Had the plan been executed at all 
points, it must have resulted in the capture of the whole 
line of British cantonments, but owing to invincible obstacles 
it turned out but ^^artially successful. 

, The evening of Christmas day, for obvious reasons, was 
chosen as the most propitious for a surprise. It proved to 
to be most bitter even for that inclement season, the cold 
so intense that two of the soldiers were frozen to death. 
The night was very, obscure, it snowed and hailed inces- 
santly, and the gloomy waters of the Delaware were half 
choked with masses of ice. But the worse the weather, it 
was so far better for the purpose, that the enemy would be 
lulled into deeper security. The soldiers were exhorted to 
redeem their previous failures, and reminded that the fate 
of their country depended upon their firmness and courage, 
and they marched down to the place of embarkation with 
a feeling of enthusiastic determination. 

Washington had expected that the passage of his division 
might have been effected by midnight, but the dreadful 
weather, the encumbered state of the river, and the diffi- 
culty of getting across the artillery, occasioned so much 
delays that it was four o'clock before the whole body were 
in marching order on the opposite shore. The darkness of 
a winter morning was still further deepened by a heavy 




'niWlnilttiMluiu 



86 



GEORGE WASHINGTON". 87 

fog, and the road was rendered slippery by a frosty mist. 
As it would be daylight before they could reach Trenton, 
the main object of the enterprise seemed to be disconcerted ; 
but there was now no alternative but to proceed. Wash- 
ington took the upper road, wliile Sullivan commanded the 
lower; and about eight in the morning, both parties en- 
countered the pickets of the enemy, who, keeping up a fire 
from behind the houses, fell back upon the town, and aroused 
their comrades. The Americans followed them up so 
closely, that they were able to open a battery at the end 
of the main street, before the drowsy Hessians could offer 
any effectual resistance. 

It is said, that on the morning of the surprise, Colonel 
Rahl, who had been carousing all night after an entertain- 
ment, was still engaged at cards, when a warning note, 
forwarded by a Tory who had discovered the approach of 
the Americans, was handed to him by the negro porter, as 
being of particular importance. He thrust it into his pocket 
and continued the game, till aroused at length by the roll 
of the American drums, and the sound of musketry, he 
started to his legs, hurried to his quarters, mounted his 
horse, and in a few moments was at the head of his troops, 
vainly attempting to stem the progress of the Americans. 
In a few moments, he fell to the ground mortally wounded, 
and was carried away to his quarters. All order was now 
at an end; the Germans, panic-struck, gave way, and 
endeavoured to escape by the road to Princeton; but were 
intercepted by a party judiciously placed there for the pur- 
pose, and compelled to surrender at discretion, to the number 
of about 1000 men. Six cannon, a thousand stand of arms, 
and four colours, adorned the triumph of Washington. In 
this moment of brilliant success, purchased at the expense 
of others, he was not unmindful of the duties of humanity; 
but, accompanied by Greene, paid a visit to the dying 
Hessian leader, and soothed his passage to the grave by the 



88 GEORGE WASHINGTON". 

expression of that grateful and generous sympathy, which 
one brave man owes to another, even when engaged in 
opposite causes. 

Had Irwin been able to cross at Trenton ferry, and 
occupy the Assumpink bridge, the English light-horse 
must also have been cut off; but such was the accumu- 
lation of the floating ice at this particular point, that he 
had found it impossible to perform his portion of the plan, 
and thus the division above mentioned hurried across the 
Assumpink, in the direction of Bordentown, and escaped. 
The same obstacle prevented Cadwallader from crossing 
over to Burlington ; he succeeded indeed in landing a body 
of troops, but the state of the ice prevented the artillery 
from being got ashore ; and unable to proceed without it, 
he was obliged to recross the Delaware. 

As considerable bodies of the English were at a short 
distance, and his troops were exhausted with fatigue and 
cold, Washington thought it prudent immediately to re- 
cross the river with his prisoners. The effect produced 
upon the drooping spirits of the Americans by this daring 
and successful achievement, especially in Philadelphia, was 
indescribable. On the alarming news of Washington's 
retreat from the Hudson, and the near approach of the 
British, Congress had thought prudent to leave the city and 
retire to Baltimore. The citizens, expecting to be shortly 
attacked, were in a state of great excitement — the partisans 
of the royal cause eager to witness its triumph by the cap- 
ture of the city, while the friends of Congress were propor- 
tionally alarmed. To overawe the former, and encourage 
the latter, the Hessians were paraded with military pomp 
through the streets of the city, the people scarcely believing 
their eyes, when they saw these dreaded foreigners defiling 
as captives before them — trophies of the valour of that 
army which some had hoped, and others feared, was irre- 
coverably disgraced and broken. Nor were the English 



GEORGE WASHINGTON". 89 

commanders less astonished and confounded, when they 
heard that the enemy whom they had fondly believed to be 
crushed, had turned and routed his pursuers. They dis- 
covered that they had to do with a commander no less 
daring than he was cautious, whose steady determination 
no defeat couM shake; who, on one hand, was prepared to 
retreat, if needful, even to the fastnesses of the Alleghanies, 
and, on the other, ready to take advantage of the least 
oversight on their own part, to convert defeat into victory. 

Soon after the glorious victory at Trenton, the American 
commander-in-chief succeeded in crossing to Jersey again, 
and in concentrating about 4000 troops at Trenton. Lord 
Cornwallis took command of the British forces in the state, 
and at once determined upon active operations. On the 
approach of the enemy, Washington retired behind Assum- 
pink creek, where he threw up intrenchments. A whole 
day, attempts were made, but in vain, to pass the stream, 
and a cannonade was kept up against the intrenchments. 
The following day, Cornwallis intended to storm the works, 
and should he, as was but too probable, succeed, the Ameri- 
can army, with the Delaware behind them, must inevitably 
be captured. To abide his attack would therefore be an 
act of foolish temerity, while to attempt to recross the 
river in presence of his army would be still more hazardous. 
A council of war was called, at which the bold design was 
adopted of getting into the rear of the English, falling 
upon their magazines at Brunswick, and carrying the war 
again from the neighbourhood of Philadelphia into the 
mountainous interior of New Jersey. 

Not a moment was to be lost. The superfluous baggage 
was sent down the river to Burlington, the watch-fires were 
kept up, the patrols ordered to go their rounds, and, still 
further to deceive the enemy, parties sent out to labour at 
the intrenchments within hearing of their sentinels. About 
midnight the army silently defiled from the camp, and 
11 



90 GEORGE WASniNGTON". 

marched off in a circuitous aud difficult road towards 
Princeton. 

It was a brilliant winter morning when they drew near 
that town, and General Mercer was sent forward by a by- 
road to seize a bridge at Worth's Mills, so as to cut off any 
fugitives, and also check any pursuit on the part of Corn- 
wallis. Three British regiments, destined to reinforce the 
latter, had passed the night in Princeton, and two of them, 
the 17th ^and 40th, under Colonel Mawhood, had already 
set out, when they suddenly came in sight of the approach- 
ing Americans, with whom they were almost immediately 
in action. The Americans, posted behind a fence, poured 
in a heavy and well directed volley, after receiving which, 
the British, with fixed bayonets, charged them with such 
impetuosity, that abandoning their shelter they broke and 
fled precipitately, closely pursued by their victorious ene- 
mies. Both fugitives and pursuers, however, were suddenly 
arrested by the sight of the troops under Washington, who, 
beholding the rout, hastened on, colours in hand, to rally 
the discomfited Americans. At no time in his life, per- 
haps, was he exposed to more imminent hazard. The 
Americans immediately rallied, the English re-formed their 
line, both levelled their guns and prepared to fire, while 
Washington, whose ardour had hurried him forward into 
a most perilous predicament, stood like a mark for the bul- 
lets of both. Fitzgerald, his aide-de-camp, dropped the 
reins upon his horse's neck, and shuddering, drew his hat 
over his face, that he might not see his leader die. A 
tremendous volley was heard, then a shout of triumph, 
and when the trembling officer ventured to look up, the 
form of Washington was dimly seen amidst the rolling 
smoke, urging forward his men to attack the enemy. Fitz- 
gerald burst into tears, and putting spurs to his horse, 
dashed after his commander. The British, however, did 
not await the onset. Mawhood, akeady severely handled, 



GEORGE WASHINGTON". 91 

and seeing reinforcements about to come up, abandoned 
his artillery, wheeled off, and regaining the Trenton road, 
continued his march to join Cornwallis without any fur- 
ther molestation. 

Washington now advanced to Princeton, encountering 
in his way the British 5oth, which after a brave resistance, 
finding it impossible to follow the 17th, retreated in the 
direction of Brunswick, accompanied by the 40th, which 
had been but very partially engaged. On entering Prince- 
ton a part of this regiment was found to be in occupation 
of the college, who made some show of resistance, but on 
cannon being brought up, and the door of the building 
forced in, they were obhged to surrender themselves 
prisoners. 

In this battle the Americans had to deplore the loss of 
the gallant Gleneral Mercer, an officer much beloved by the 
army and Washington, with whom he had served in the 
American and French wars. 

The sound of the artillery at Princeton, and the sight of 
the empty intrenchments, made Cornwallis aware of the 
escape of Washington, and he immediately set off in pur- 
suit. The Americans were in no condition for battle. By 
a rapid and masterly retreat, Washington escaped from his 
opponents and retired into winter-quarters, in a strong po- 
sition near Morristown. In a short and brilliant campaign 
he had retrieved the American honour, revived the hopes 
of all patriotic citizens, and won a brilliant reputation as a 
commander. While in winter quarters, he strove against 
almost incredible obstacles to recruit and strengthen his 
army for a longer series of operations ; and also took occa- 
sion to remonstrate with the British commander-in-chief 
concerning the treatment of American prisoners. 

The campaign of 1777 opened with a series of predatory 
excursions on the part of the British. General Tryon de- 
stroyed a considerable quantity of shipping and stores be- 



92 GEORGE WASHINGTON. 

longing to Connecticut ; but was defeated at Ridefield, by 
the militia under Wooster and Arnold. Wooster was 
killed in the action. Arnold narrowly escaped the same 
fate ; his desperate bravery was rewarded by the thanks 
of Congress and the present of a horse. Nearly four hun- 
dred of British were killed, wounded, or captured during 
this expedition. The depredations of Tryon were retali- 
ated by General Stevens and Colonel Meigs, who displayed 
a daring enterprise and inflicted much injury upon the 
enemy. 

The spring was far advanced before Howe was in a posi- 
tion to open the campaign, and Washington, from his camp 
at Morristown, anxiously watched for the first movements 
of the enemy. It was known that General Burgoyne had 
assumed the command in Canada, but as yet his intentions 
were undeveloped. A quantity of vessels and pontoons, 
it was ascertained, was also provided at New York, appa- 
rently for an impending attack upon Philadelphia. In 
order to cover that city, Washington now moved down to 
a strong camp at Middlebrook, with an army increased to 
forty-three regiments, but so imperfectly filled up that the 
number of troops was only about eight thousand. 

It was not till the middle of June that Howe marched 
out of New Brunswick, ostensibly to attack Philadelphia, 
but in reality, if possible, to draw Washington from his 
defences, and bring on a general engagement, which his 
opponent was equally anxious to avoid. With this view 
he artfully made a retrograde movement towards Amboy, 
which drew down Washington from the high ground as 
far as Quibbletown, when Howe, as suddenly turning 
round, endeavoured to cut him off from the hills; but his 
w^ary adversary made good his retreat to Middlebrook. 
Foiled in this object, Howe retired to Staten Island to 
meditate a fresh attack. 

Information having reached the English general of Bur- 



GEORGE WASHINGTON. 93 

goyne's meditated expedition from Canada, of which we 
shall presently speak more fully, Sir Henry Clinton was 
left at New York, with four thousand men, in order to co- 
operate with him, while Howe embarked with the main 
body of his army, intending to attack Philadelphia in 
another direction. As Washington soon received authentic 
ncAvs that Burgoyne was advancing upon Ticonderoga, this 
movement of Howe's occasioned him the greatest perplexity. 
It was uncertain whether he meant to ascend the Hudson, 
and co-operate with Burgoyne, to sail up the Delaware, or 
even to attack Boston. Supposing it was the first, Wash- 
ington advanced towards the Highlands; but when the 
ships had been, by his spies, reported steering to the south- 
ward; he directed his march towards Philadelphia. The 
fleet, however, instead of ascending the Delaware, had 
been seen sailing to the eastward, a movement which re- 
quired fresh attention ; finally, it was again descried to the 
southward, until it was the general impression that it was 
gone down to Charleston. . During these movements and 
counter-movements, Washington had repaired to Philadel- 
phia, where he had an interview with Congress, and had 
marched down his army to Germantown, in order to be 
ready for any casualty. It was not until the 22d of August, 
that certain information came in that the British ships had 
entered the Chesapeake, and landed the troops at the head 
of Elk river, whence, as soon as his stores and baggage 
were landed, Howe directed his march upon Philadelphia. 
Though his troops were inferior in numbers and discipline 
to the enemy, Washington determined to risk a battle in 
defence of Philadelphia. The people expected him to pur- 
sue this course. Accordingly, the American army was drawn 
up on the heights above the Brandywine creek. Chad's Ford, 
the principal passage of this stream, was guarded by General 
Wayne. The British general formed his plan of attack 
with great skill and sagacity. When within seven miles of 



94 GEORGE WASHINGTON. 

the Americans he divided his army into two cohnnns, send- 
ing one under General Knyphausen, by the direct road to 
Chad's Ford, while Cornwallis led the other by a wide circuit 
to cross the creek far above the ford, and turn the right 
wing of the American army. Washington has been censured 
for not taking advantage of this division of the enemy. He 
designed to attack them separately, but was perplexed, until 
it was too late, by contradictory reports. 

At last, about two o'clock, arrived undoubted news, that 
Cornwalhs had really crossed at the Forks, and was hastily 
coming down upon the American right flank. Sullivan was 
now immediately detached to meet him, while Greene's divi- 
sion, accompanied by Washington, took up a central position 
between Chad's Ford, defended by Maxwell, and the ad- 
vancing columns of Sullivan. 

No sooner had Cornwallis come up with this latter divi- 
sion, which, from the hurry occasioned by confused and 
conflicting accounts, had got but imperfectly into line, than 
he attacked it with such irresistible impetuosity, that it 
speedily began to give way. Some of the older troops stood 
their ground manfully, till borne down by superior numbers ; 
but the new levies of militia soon broke and fled, in spite 
of all the efforts of their officers. The confusion spread 
along the line, which retired before their assailants, still 
rallying at certain points, and covered by Greene's division, 
which opened its ranks to receive the fugitives. Mean- 
while, being assured by the cannonading that Howe's ma- 
noeuvre had proved successful, Knyphausen converted his 
feigned attack into a real one, passed the ford, drove in its 
defenders after a stout resistance, and by his advance com- 
pleted the discomfiture of the Americans. Greene's division 
still continued to cover the retreat, till darkness overspread 
the scene of conflict, aUd probably proved the salvation of 
the fugitive army. The British halted upon the field of 



GEORGE WASHINGTON. 95 

battle, while the disorganized American battalions retreated 
to Chester, and thence fell back upon Philadelphia. 

Congress, not at all disconcerted by this severe blow, 
voted thanks to La Fayette, Pulaski, and other gallant 
officers, invested the commander-in-chief with still more 
extensive powers, and determined to maintain its sitting at 
Philadelphia to the latest moment. Washington retained 
all his self-reliance and steadiness of temper under the 
reverse. The surprise and massacre of Wayne's detach- 
ment at Paoli, by General Grey, another serious disaster, 
could not diminish his confidence in the ultimate triumph 
of the glorious cause he had espoused. 

As soon as the remains of the army were refreshed and 
reorganized, Washington marched out of Philadelphia, and 
encountering the advancing British, about twenty miles 
distant from the city, prepared to offer them battle for the 
second time. The outjDosts began the engagement, when a 
violent storm of rain came on, which lasted a whole day and 
night, and prevented the continuance of the conflict. He 
made another unfavourable attempt to stop the onward pro- 
gress of the British army, who, having crossed the Schuylkill, 
divided into two bodies, Howe himself encamping with the 
main body, at Germantown, while Cornwallis, with a strong 
detachment, entered Philadelphia in triumph, where he was 
warmly received by the numerous partisans of the royal 
cause. On his approach, Congress retired into the interior 
of Pennsylvania, first to Lancaster, and afterwards to York- 
town, where they remained until the evacuation of Phila- 
delphia by the royal army. 

Li the mean time events occurred in the north which had 
a vast influence upon the decision of the contest. We allude 
to the expedition of Burgoyne, his defeat, and the capture 
of his whole army at Saratoga. A project had been formed to 
cut off the New England States from the rest of the country, 
and render them an easy conquest. This was to be accom- 



96 GEORGE WASHINGTON". 

plished by the union of an army from New York, and one 
from Canada. General Burgoyne started from Canada with 
a finely-appointed army of seven thousand regulars, and 
a large force of Canadian militia and Indians. Early in 
July, 1777, he reached Ticonderoga. This place, com- 
manded by St. Clair, was evacuated without a siege, on the 
5th of July. The retreating army under St. Clair, was 
hotly pursued, overtaken, and defeated. Fort Ann and 
Skeensborough were occupied by the enemy, and all attempts 
to check his further progress appeared wholly desperate. 

At this crisis a small delay in the advance of Burgoyne, 
from Skeensborough, rendered necessary by the natural diffi- 
culties of the country, was diligently employed by General 
Schuyler. That meritorious officer contrived to raise the 
most formidable impediments to the further progress of Bur- 
goyne, by breaking down the bridges, obstructing the navi- 
gation of Wood creek, choking up the roads or pathways 
through the forest, by felled trees, and by driving off all the 
cattle of the neighbouring country. These obstructions were 
so formidable that Burgoyne did not arrive at Fort Edward, 
on the upper branches of the Hudson, till twenty-five days 
after his pause at Skeensborough. Here, a painful, unsea- 
sonable, and dangerous pause was again necessary, in order 
to procure provisions from the posts in the rear, and to 
collect the boats and other vessels necessary for the navigar 
tion of the Hudson. 

The progress of Burgoyne was arrested at the very point 
where it should seem all obstacles, of any moment, were 
fully surmounted. He had reached the Hudson by a most 
painful and laborious march through the forest, and a de- 
tachment of his army under St. Leger, who had been di- 
rected to approach the Hudson by another road, had nearly 
effected this purpose. St. Leger had gained a battle, and 
was now besieging Fort Schujder, the surrender of which 
was necessary to the further co-operation of the British 



GEORGE WASHINGTON. 97 

generals, and was confidently anticipated. The tide of 
events, however, now suddenly took a new direction. 

Fort Schuyler refused to surrender, and the assault of the 
besiegers made very little impression on the works. The 
Indians, who composed a large part of St. Leger's army, 
began to display their usual fickleness and treachery, and 
after many efforts made by the British general to detain 
them, finally resolved to withdraw. This created an abso- 
lute necessity for raising the siege, which was done with 
great precipitation, and with the loss of all their camp 
equipage and stores. 

On the other side the strenuous exertions of General 
Schuyler had deprived Burgoyne of all those resources which 
the neighbouring country might have afforded him. After 
a fortnight's labour he had been able to collect only twelve 
boats, and five days' provision for his army. An attempt 
to obtain possession of a depository of provisions at Benning- 
ton, had failed, and two detachments, sent on that service, 
had been defeated. The militia of the eastern and lower 
country were rapidly collecting, and threatened to raise 
obstacles still more formidable than those of nature. 

Gates was now appointed to succeed Schuyler, and arrived 
at the scene of action on the 21st of August, 1777. 

It was fortunate for General Gates that the retreat from 
Ticonderoga had been conducted under other auspices than 
his, and that he took the command when the indefatigable 
but unrequited labours of Schuyler, and the courage of 
Starke and his mountaineers had already insured the ulti- 
mate defeat of Burgoyne, who, notwithstanding his unfa- 
vourable prospects, would not think of saving his army by 
a timely retreat, was highly propitious to the new American 
commander. 

After collecting thirty days' provision, Burgoyne passed 
the Hudson, and encamped at Saratoga. Gates, with 
numbers already equal, and daily increasing, began to ad- 
12 



98 GEORGE WASHINGTON. 

vance towards him with a resolution to oppose his progress 
at the risk of a battle. He encamped at Stillwater, and 
Burgoyne hastened forward to open the way with his sword. 
On the 17th of September the two armies were within four 
miles of each other. Two days after, skirmishes between 
advanced parties terminated in an engagement almost 
general, in which the utmost efforts of the British merely 
enabled them to maintain the footing of the preceding day. 

Burgojaie, unassisted by the British forces under Clinton, 
at New York, found himself unable to pursue his march 
down the river, and in the hope of this assistance was con- 
tent to remain in his camp, and stand on the defensive. 
His army was likewise diminished by the desertion of the 
Indians and Canadian militia, to less than one-half of its 
original number. Gates, finding his forces largely increasing, 
being plentifully supplied with provisions, and knowing that 
Burgoyne had only a limited store, which was rapidly less- 
ening, and could not be recruited, was not without hopes that 
victory would come, in time, even without a battle. His 
troops were so numerous, and his fortified position so strong, 
that he was able to take measures for preventing the retreat 
of the enemy, by occupying the strong posts in his rear. 
Accordingly, nineteen days passed without any further 
operations, a delay as ruinous to one party as it was advan- 
tageous to the other. At the end of this period the British 
general found his prospects of assistance as remote as ever, 
and the consumption of his stores so alarming, that retreat 
or victory became unavoidable alternatives. 

On the 8th of October a warm action ensued, in which 
the British were everywhere repulsed, and a part of their 
lines occupied by their enemies, under the gallant Arnold. 
Burgoyne's loss was very considerable in killed, wounded, 
and prisoners, while the favourable situation of Gates' army 
made its losses in the battle of no moment. Burgo^aie re- 
tired in the night to a stronger camp, but the measures im- 



GEORGE WASHINGTON. 99 

mediately taken by Gates to cut off his retreat, compelled 
him without delay to regain his former camp at Saratoga. 
There he arrived with little molestation from his adversary. 
His provisions being now reduced to the supply of a few 
days, the transport of artillery and baggage towards Canada 
being rendered impracticable by the judicious measures of 
his adversary, the British general resolved upon a rapid 
retreat, merely with what the soldiers could carry. 

On a careful scrutiny, however, it was found that they 
were deprived even of this resource, as the passes through 
which their route lay, were so strongly guarded, that nothing 
but artillery could clear them. In this desperate situation 
a parley took place, and on the 16th of October, the whole 
army surrendered to Gates. The prize obtained consisted 
of more than five thousand prisoners, some fine artillery, 
seven thousand muskets, clothing for seven hundred men, 
with a great quantity of tents, and other military stores. 
All the frontier fortresses were immediately abandoned to 
the victors. 

The effects of this great triumph were astonishing. From 
that time forth Americans felt sure of achieving their inde- 
pendence. France now indicated a disposition to form an 
alliance with the gallant States who had humbled the pride 
of her ancient rival. 

While these scenes were passing, Washington, aware of 
the situation of afiairs, was in a state of great anxiety, fully 
anticipating some decisive intelligence. The brilliant suc- 
cesses of Gates, contrasted with his own repeated misfor- 
tunes, had given strength to a cabal for transferring to the 
former the office of commander-in-chief; and Washington 
well knew that the capture of Burgoyne would probably be 
decisive of his own fate. It was on the forenoon of Satur- 
day, the 18th of October, that Colonel Pickering, adjutant- 
general of the array, was engaged in official business with 
Washington, in the upper room of a house at York, where 



100 GEORGE WASHINGTON. 

Congress was then in session. "While sitting there (to quote 
the narrative of Upham), a horseman was seen approaching, 
whose appearance indicated that he had travelled long, and 
from far. His aspect, his saddle-bags, and the manner of 
his movement, indicated that he was an express-rider. The 
attention of both Washington and Pickering was at once 
arrested. They took it for granted that he was bearing 
despatches from the northern army to Congress, and were 
sure that he could inform them whether the report of Bur- 
goyne's surrender was well founded. As he approached 
near them, Colonel Pickering recognised him as an officer 
belonging to the northern army. At Washington's request 
he ran down to the door, stopped him, and conducted him 
up to the general's room, with his saddle-bags. Washington 
instantly ojDened them, tore the envelope off a package, 
spread out an announcement of the victory at Saratoga and 
Burgoyne's surrender to General Gates, and attempted to 
read it aloud. As he read, the colour gradually settled 
away from his countenance, his hand trembled, his lip 
quivered, his utterance failed him — he dropped the paper, 
clasped his hands, raised them on high, and for several 
moments was lost in a rapture of adoring gratitude. " While 
I gazed," Colonel Pickering used to say, " while I gazed upon 
this sublime exhibition of sensibility, I saw conclusive proof 
that, in comparison with the good of his country, self was ab- 
solutely nothing — the man disappeared from my view, and 
the very image and personification of the ijatriot stood before 
me." This anecdote was communicated to Mr. Upham by 
Colonel Pickering himself. 

Gates despatched his favourite aid-de-camp, Wilkinson, to 
Congress. On being introduced into the hall, he said, " The 
whole British army has laid down arms at Saratoga — our 
own, full of vigour and courage, expect your orders ; it is 
for your wisdom to decide where the country may still have 
need of their services." This intelligence, in point of 



GEORGE WASHINGTON. 101 

etiquette, ought to have been first sent by Gates to Wash- 
ington ; but the pride of the victor refused to acknowledge 
a superior. Congress immediately voted thanks to the 
army and its leader, and decreed that he should receive a 
gold medal. 

We left Washington in his camp on the Schuylkill, 
watching the movements of the army of Howe, part of 
which occupied the city of Philadelphia, while the re- 
mainder lay at Germantown, a large village a few miles 
distant. The British fleet had recently entered the Dela- 
ware, but was unable to ascend the river on account of the 
obstructions placed there by the Americans. At the con- 
fluence of the Schuylkill and Delaware they had erected 
Fort Mifflin, on the opposite side of the river, Fort Mercer, 
while obstructions had been sunk in the river, protected by 
floating batteries and ships. 

Part of the English army having been sent to remove 
these obstructions and convoy prisoners, Washington made 
a well-planned but abortive attempt to surprise the camp 
at Germantown. The army, divided into four columns, 
marched all night, and about sunrise fell upon the enemy, 
whom they at first threw into considerable confusion. But 
Colonel Musgrave having thrown himself with six com- 
panies into a large stone building, known as "Chew's 
House," kept up a destructive fire upon the Americans, and 
arrested their victorious career. A thick fog also came on, 
which further confused the movements of the attackina; 
party. Taking advantage of this, the British in their turn 
became the assailants, and completely routed their enemies, 
who lost twelve hundred men in this unfortunate attempt, 
while that of the British was not above six hundred. 
Washington was much criticised for stopping to reduce the 
"Chew House," instead of marching forward, and the unfor- 
tunate result of the business lent arms to those enemies, 



302 GEORGE WASHINGTON. 

wlio were even then seeking to deprive him of the chief 
command. 

A vigorous attempt was now made by Howe to reduce 
the forts. Having removed the obstructions in the river, 
find taken the works which covered them, some ships of 
war ascended the Delaware to co-operate with the land 
forces. The fort of Red Bank was garrisoned by two Rhode 
Island regiments, under Colonel Greene — Fort Mifflin by 
Colonel Smith, of the Maryland line. 

Twelve hundred men, under the command of Count 
Donop, crossed the river and marched down the opposite 
bank to attack Red Bank. Greene retired into the fort, 
and received the assailants with such a murderous fire of 
musketry and grape, that they were compelled to retreat, 
with the loss of four hundred men and their brave leader. 
Nor was the assault of Fort Mifflin by the British men-of- 
■war more successful, a sixty-four-gun ship being blown up, 
a frigate burned, and others severely handled. 

Baffled in this first attemi^t, the British took possession 
of a small island adjacent to that upon which Fort Mifflin 
w^as built, and thence kept up a tremendous cannonade, 
while the ships advanced within a hundred yards, and 
poured their broadsides upon the works. For six days the 
defenders sustained the fury of the assault, repairing by 
night the breaches made during the day, and did not retire 
until the works were completely untenable. The whole 
force of the enemy was next directed upon Red Bank, which 
was at once evacuated, and thus the British, by the com- 
mand of the river, and a free communication with their fleet, 
were firmly established in Philadelphia. 

The rest of the year passed away in unimjiortant 
skirmishes, and Washington put his troops into winter 
quarters at Valley Forge, a deep and woody hollow on the 
Schuylkill, about twenty miles from Philadelphia. The 
condition of the army was truly deplorable. It was now 



GEORGE WASHINGTON". 103 

the beginning of the severe season, and on their march the 
shoeless soldiers had stained the snow with their bleeding 
feet. On reaching the cold, bleak spot chosen for their 
encampment, they set to work to build a city of log huts, 
to protect them from the frost and snow. They were in a 
state of almost utter destitution. Three thousand men 
were reported as "barefoot and otherwise naked." Filth 
and want produced fever; the crowded hospital, destitute 
of every comfort, resembled more a place for the dying than 
a refuge for the sick; and the soldiers preferred perishing 
unassisted in their misery, than burying themselves alive 
in this horrible receptacle — the terror of the whole army. 
The officers, who shared these privations, found themselves, 
by the depreciation of the paper, unable to provide decently 
for their rank. Many had exhausted their private resources, 
others run into debt, and, finding their position insupport- 
able, openly talked of laying down their commissions ; and 
the soldiers, notwithstanding the patriotism which sup- 
ported them, were frequently on the very brink of mutiny. 
The sufferings of his army pierced Washington to tlie 
very soul, and drew forth the most pressing appeals to Con- 
gress. It is but just to say, however, that the evil arose 
from their inexperience rather than their neglect. The root 
of all the evil was the paper money. Contracts had been 
entered into with certain clothiers at Boston, as Congress 
complained, "at the rate of ten to eighteen hundred per 
cent.," and then only for ready money, " manifesting" in the 
contractors " a disposition callous to the feelings of humanity, 
and untouched by the severe sufferings of their country- 
men, exposed to a winter campaign in defence of the com- 
mon liberties of their country." These exorbitant prices 
were, after all, only those to which the depreciation of the 
paper had forced the merchants to resort. Where contracts 
were concluded, such was the difficulty of transport, that 
it was long ere any supplies could reach the soldiers, and 



104 GEORGE WASHINGTON. 

many were scattered and lost at the very moment when they 
were almost perishing for want. To keep his troops from 
starving, Washington Avas obliged to force contributions 
from the reluctant farmers, search the neighbourhood for 
concealed provisions, and intercept convoys destined for the 
enemy at Philadelphia. 

While contending with these complicated difficulties, he 
was well aware that the intrigues which had been long on 
foot to remove him from the chief command, and to appoint 
Gates in his place, were actively going forward. The mis- 
fortunes which had attended his arms, compared with the 
brilliant successes of the conqueror of Saratoga, suggested 
a most unfavourable comparison. Certain officers had long 
laboured in secret to undermine the confidence of Congress, 
especially General Conway, an active intriguing character, 
disappointed in the office of inspector-general to the army. 
However great was the patriotism of Congress, it would 
have been more than mortal, if free from party spirit, or even 
in some degree from selfish interest. Samuel Adams, and 
certain of the New England members, had always been 
secretly unfavourable to Washington, his marked confi- 
dence in Greene had offended many, and Mifflin was 
offended at the complaints made of his management of the 
quarter-master's department. Anonymous letters were 
freely circulated, accusing the commander-in-chief of fa- 
vouritism and incompetence. 

Washington, aware of these manoeuvres, had hitherto 
treated them with dignified forbearance ; but a regard to his 
own character now compelled him to bring them to light, 
and let their authors know that he was acquainted with 
what was going forward. Accordingly, he wrote to inform 
Conway that a letter from that officer to Gates had been 
reported to him, containing the following passage : " Heaven 
has been determined to save your country, or a weak general 
and bad counsellors would have ruined it." The plot so 



GEORGE WASHINGTON. 105 

long working in darkness now exploded, the affair became 
noised abroad, and with it arose a general burst of indig- 
nation from the army and people. Gates crept out of the 
business but very lamely. Conway, who had been pro- 
moted at last to the desired post of inspector-general, jDiqued 
at being ordered to the northern department, offered his 
resignation — which, to his great vexation, was at once ac- 
cepted. Being afterwards wounded in a duel, and supposing 
himself at the point of death, he addressed to Washington 
the following letter: "I find myself just able to hold the 
pen during a few minutes, and take this opportunity of ex- 
pressing my sincere grief for having done, written, or said 
anything disagreeable to your Excellency. My career will 
soon be over — therefore, justice and truth prompt me to de- 
clare my last sentiments. You are, in my eyes, the great 
and good man. May you long enjoy the love, veneration, 
and esteem of these States, whose liberties you have asserted 
by your virtues." 

No wonder that Washington was almost adored by his 
followers. He felt for their embarrassments and privations, 
and, as they well knew, did all in his power to obtain re- 
dress. He was painfully aware of the unfounded prejudices 
against a standing army entertained by Congress, and 
warmly protested against them. " We should all," he said, 
" Congress and army, be considered as one people, embarked 
in one cause, in one interest, acting on the same principle 
and to the same end." Such suspicions, he pleaded, were 
the more unjust, " because no order of men in the Thirteen 
States had paid a more sacred regard to the proceedings of 
Congress than the army; for, without arrogance, or the 
smallest deviation from truth, it might be said that no his- 
tory now extant can furnish an instance of an army's suf- 
fering such uncommon hardships as ours has done, and 
bearing them with the same patience and fortitude." But 
while thus seeking to obtain justice for his brave companions 



106 GEORGE WASHINGTON. 

in arms, Wasliington, on the other hand, always set the 
example of showing the utmost respect to constituted 
authority, and inculcated upon the army a religious de- 
pendence upon the civil power. And although he had not 
been without detractors, even among Congress, yet, such 
was their experience of his wisdom and prudence, his purity 
and disinterestedness and magnanimity, in short, his une- 
qualled qualifications for his post, that all attempts to injure 
his good name only served to root him more deeply in their 
confidence and veneration.* 

The news that an alliance had been concluded between 
France and the United States arrived early in 1778, and 
excited great rejoicings, not only in the army of Washing- 
ton, but throughout the country. 

The situation of the British army, shut up in Philadel- 
phia, had now become exceedingly precarious, as the arrival 
of a French fleet might shortly be expected in the Delaware. 
Sir William Howe, disgusted at the want of sufficient co- 
operation from ministers, had returned to England, and the 
office of chief command now devolved upon Sir Henry 
Clinton. Unable to find transports to convey his entire 
army, he was compelled to march by land to New York, 
which he had chosen as a more defensible position. Wash- 
ington now called a council of his officers, at which it 
was debated whether they should confine their operations 
to harassing and impeding his retreat, or venture upon a 
general action. The subject was still under discussion, 
when news arrived on the morning of the 18th of June, 
that Howe had evacuated the city. 

Having crossed the Delaware, the English army, encum- 
bered with an immense convoy of baggage, pushed on for 
the high grounds of Middle town. Washington resolved to 
intercept it before it could get there, and ordered Lee, who 
had the command of the vanguard, to commence an attack, 

* Bartlett. 



GEORGE WASHINGTON. 107 

" unless he should see strong reason to the contrary/' pro- 
mising to come up and support it with the rest of the army. 
Clinton, seeing himself thus menaced, judiciously trans- 
ferred his baggage to the front, and to cover its march, 
took post in the rear, with the principal part of his 
troops. 

The weather was intolerabl}" close and sultry, the country 
sandy and almost destitute of water, and the march of both 
armies under a burning sun was so distressing that many 
of the horses were killed ; and during the ensuing action, 
nearly sixty British soldiers and many Americans perished 
from the combined effects of heat and fatigue alone. On 
the morning of the 28th of June, Lee prepared to attack 
the British, who had encamped at Monmouth Court House, 
when, in order to give time for the latter to get beyond his 
reach, Clinton suddenly faced about upon his pursuer. 
Disconcerted by this unexpected move, with little confi- 
dence in his American troops, and finding his ground un- 
favourable for defence, Lee was in the act of falling back 
with his troops upon a better position, when Washington 
came up to his support. L-ritated at this apparent flight, 
he addressed Lee very warmly, and immediately exerted 
himself to retrieve the fortune of the day. The whole 
American rear coming up, a warm but indecisive action 
followed. The English occupied a strong position, covered 
by marshes and ravines, and night came on before Wash- 
ington was able to dislodge them; he kept the soldiers 
under arms, and slept in his cloak upon the field, intending 
to renew the attack at daylight. But Clinton had already 
effected his object — his convoy was already out of reach, 
and carrying off his wounded, during the night he stole off 
as silent as the grave. Next morning he rejoined his bag- 
gage on the heights of Middletown, beyond the danger of 
further pursuit. Though he had lost but about three hundred 
men in this battle, upwards of a thousand, who had married 



108 GEORGE WASHINGTON. 

in Philadelphia, deserted during the march. Clinton now 
inarched his army to Sandy Hook, and embarking on board 
the fleet of Admiral Howe, was carried to New York. 
Only a few days after he had thus effected his retreat, a 
French fleet under D'Estaing, with a body of four thousand 
troops, and bearing M. Gerard, ambassador to the United 
States, arrived off the mouth of the Delaware. Had not 
this armament been an unusual length of time on the 
passage, it is hardly to be doubted that Clinton's army, 
hemmed in at once by the French and Americans, must 
have surrendered like that of Burgoyne. 

Finding that the English had escaped, D'Estaing now 
sailed after them, but on reaching Sandy Hook, the pilots 
refused to take his heavier ships across the bar. This cir- 
cumstance disconcerted a projected attack against New 
York by the French forces, and those of Washington, who, 
after the battle of Monmouth, had crossed the Hudson to 
White Plains. Unable to effect his designs, D'Estaing 
transferred the scene of hostiHties to Newport, in Khode 
Island. 

The day after the battle of Monmouth, Lee, who could 
ill brook the pointed rebuke of Washington, wrote to him 
in high terms to demand an explanation. The tone of 
Washington's reply increased his irritation, and he retorted 
in terms of greater exasperation. He was soon after tried 
by court-martial for disobedience of orders, for making a 
shameful retreat, and for disrespect to his commanding 
officer. He defended himself with much skill, and opinions 
were much divided as to his liability to blame. He was, 
however, condemned upon all the charges excepting only the 
term shameful, and suspended for one year, though it was 
not without hesitation that Congress ratified the decision. 
He appears to have considered himself an ill-used man, 
and afterwards giving way to irritation in a correspond- 



GEORGE WASHINGTON. 109 

ence with Congress, was finally dismissed the American 
service. 

To co-operate with the attack on the English in Rhode 
Island, a call had been made upon that state, as well as 
Massachusetts and Connecticut, for 5000 fresh militia. 
The appeal was responded to with great spirit, and John 
Hancock marched at the head of the Massachusetts recruits. 
On the 29th of July, D'Estaing appeared with his fleet, 
and was received with the greatest enthusiasm by the com- 
bined American and French troops. An attack was imme- 
diately projected upon General Pigot, who withdrew into a 
strong position near Newport. Several days, however, 
were lost in waiting for the militia, and an incident now 
occurred, which caused the whole project to prove abor- 
tive. 

On the afternoon of the 9th of August, Howe appeareds 
with his squadron oif the harbour, and on the following 
morning D'Estaing sailed out of it to encounter him, carry- 
ing off the troops who were to have co-operated in the 
attack. A desperate sea-fight was now imminent, and the 
whole day was spent in preliminary manoeuvres. But at 
night there came on a violent hurricane, still remembered 
as the " great storm," which lasted for forty-eight hours, 
and scattered the hostile fleets. The French admiral's 
flag-ship was rudderless and dismasted, when she was 
attacked by a British frigate, and nearly captured. Other 
partial encounters took place during the fury of the tem- 
pest, which however too effectually crippled both fleets to 
enable them to carry out their hostile design. Howe re- 
gained New York to refit, while D'Estaing reappeared with 
his shattered vessels at Newport, where the Americans 
were anxiously expecting his arrival. They now urged 
him to refit his ships in their harbour, and to co-operate in 
their attack upon the English. But his officers so strenu- 
ously dwelt upon the tenor of his instructions, which were, 



110 GEORGE WASHINGTON. 

in case of injuryj to refit at Boston, that in spite of all re- 
monstrances, he insisted on repairing to that port. The 
Americans were deeply chagrined that their French allies 
should have thus forsaken them at the pinch, and Sullivan 
sarcastically said, in his general orders, that he " could by 
no means suppose the army or any part of it endangered 
by this movement," He was, however soon compelled to 
retreat, and take post on some hills at the northern extre- 
mity of the island, when, after sustaining a warm engage- 
ment with the British, he skilfully evacuated the island. 
He was only just in time. The very next day. Admiral 
Plowe, who had vainly endeavoured to cut the French 
ships out of Boston, returned with a reinforcement of 4000 
troops under Sir Henry Clinton. 

New York was now the only strong post in the posses- 
sion of the English ; and thus, to use the words of Wash- 
ington, " after two years' manoeuvering, and undergoing the 
strangest vicissitudes that perhaps ever attended any one 
contest since the creation, both armies are brought back to 
the very point they set out from, and the offending party 
in the beginning is now reduced to the use of the spade and 
pickaxe for defence. The hand of Providence has been so 
conspicuous in all this, that he must be worse than an in- 
fidel that lacks faith, and more wicked, that has not grati- 
tude enough to acknowledge his obligations." 

, In June, 1778, Lord Carlisle, and Messrs. Eden and 
Johnstone, British commissioners, attemj^ted to negotiate a 
reconciliation with Congress, but failed. They then threat- 
ened that the war should assume a more desolating charac- 
ter, and shortly afterwards it was made evident that they 
meant what they said. New Bedford and Fairhaven, and 
other places which had become shelters for American priva- 
teers, were burned, and the neighbouring country ravaged. 
Baylor's regiment of cavalry was bayoneted at Tappan. 
The Tories and Indians desolated the lovehest portion of 



GEORGE WASHINGTON. Ill 

the frontier. The massacre at Wyoming Valley excited a 
feeling of horror throughout the country. Retaliatory ex- 
peditions were undertaken. The Indian country was deso- 
lated ; and Colonel George Rogers Clarke put an end to the 
atrocities of the Indians, for a time, by the conquest of 
the British posts in Illinois. 

The remainder of the campaign was not marked with 
any event of great importance. Washington, however, 
laboured unceasingly — at one time in reconciling the French 
and Americans for cordial and united action, and at another 
in striving to break up speculations in provisions, which oc- 
casioned much distress, not only in the army, but throughout 
the country. Party spirit was violent in Congress, and no 
vigorous measures could be adopted in spite of the continued 
entreaties and expostulations of the commander-in-chief. 
Perhaps the greatest service performed by Washington in 
this war for independence, was that of spurring Congress 
and the people to action, and yet kee^^ing them within the 
bounds of justice. But for his unceasing efibrts, the spirit 
of union and the desire for independence must have been 
destroyed. By the Articles of Confederation, which were 
adopted during the latter part of this year, the powers of 
Congress were made more extensive and definite, and Wash- 
ington now had reason to expect more vigorous action on 
the part of that body. 

In 1779, the British determined to turn their attention 
to the conquest of the Southern State, as they had been 
disappointed so completely in the North. At first the 
Americans were unfortunate. General Robert Howe was 
defeated in Georgia by Colonel Campbell, and Savannah 
fell into the hands of the enemy. General Prevost soon 
afterwards compelled Howe's successor. General Lincoln, to 
retire before him, and advanced to near Charleston, and 
then retreated to Savannah, burning and ravaging on the 
route. A British squadron and army ascended the Chesa- 



112 GEORGE WASHINGTON. 

peake, took Portsmouth and Norfolk, captured or burned a 
hundred and thirty merchant vessels, and carried off an 
immense amount of booty. 

In the north, the campaign was opened by extensive 
ravages in Connecticut, committed by Tryon and Garth. 
Such operations, however, only served to exasperate the 
people, and render them more bitter in their hatred of the 
British. While these operations were proceeding, Sir Henry 
Clinton ascended the Hudson river, and captured the forts 
at Stony Point and Verplanck's Point. 

As the works in the Highlands were now seriously me- 
jiaced, Washington planned an expedition to recover Stony 
Point, which was executed with great gallantry, by Gene- 
ral Wayne, on the night of July 15th, and was indeed 
one of the most dashing exploits of the Revolutionary war. 

Stony Point, as its name implies, is a rocky promontory, 
washed on three sides by the Hudson, and accessible on the 
other only across a morass, defended by two lines of ahattis 
and outworks. Stealing with the utmost secrecy through 
the woods, the party near midnight reached the edge of the 
morass, where Wayne divided his forces into two columns, 
who were to assault the works at as many different points. 
A forlorn hope, under Lieutenants Gibbon and Knox, pre- 
ceded them to remove the obstructions. The men were 
ordered to make use of the bayonet alone. They were not 
discovered until within pistol-shot, when the alarm was 
given, the drum beat to arms, and amidst the darkness and 
confusion a heavy fire immediately opened on the assailants. 
Nearly all the forlorn hope perished, but in spite of resist- 
ance the Americans broke through the barriers and carried 
all before them. Wayne was struck down on his knees by 
a ball, and believing himself mortally wounded, exclaimed, 
as his aid-de-camp assisted him to rise, " March on ! carry 
me into the fort, for I will die at the head of my column ;" 
— he was, however, enabled to proceed with his men. The 



GEORGE WASHINGTON. 113 

two columns gained the centre of the works at the same 
moment, with loud huzzas of triumph, and the garrison 
were compelled to surrender at discretion. Wayne's brief 
note to Washington is characteristic. " The fort and garri- 
son, with Colonel Johnson, are ours. Our officers and men 
behaved like men who are determined to be free." In 
memory of this brilliant exploit. Congress voted medals to 
General Wayne, Captain de Fleury, and Major Stewart. 
To maintain the post long was, however, impossible, and 
after the destruction of the works, the cannon was put on 
board a galley to be removed to West Point, but was sunk 
by an unlucky shot from the enemy's batteries on the other 
side of the stream. 

Another action of great spirit was the surprise of Paulus 
Hook, opposite New York, by Colonel Lee, and the capture 
of the garrison, thus carried off almost within sight of the 
head-quarters of Sir Henry Clinton. These successes, 
although in themselves of little importance, served to keep 
up the spirits of the American army and people, and to 
check aggressive operations on the part of the British 
troops. 

The war now embraced both hemispheres, and the ocean 
that separated" them; and the operations on the soil of 
America were comparatively insignificant. The islands of 
the West Indies became the theatre of conflict, and the 
prize for which the navies of France and England con- 
tended. Before D'Estaing reached those waters with his 
fleet, Dominica had fallen into the hands of the French, 
commanded by the Marquis de Bouille, while the English 
had taken St. Lucie. Having in vain sought to bring 
D'Estaing to a general action, Byron sailed to convoy home 
the West Indiamen, during which interval D'Estaing, rein- 
forced by several ships, made the conquest of Grenada. 
Scarcely was this effected when the English ships returned, 
and a warm but partial engagement took place, which, as 
14 



114 GEORGE WASHINGTON. 

his opponent was compelled to retire, D'Estaing considered 
a victory. According to the tenor of his orders, he ought 
now to have returned home with the principal part of his 
fleet, but having received the most pressing letters from 
America, complaining of the abortive issue of the attack 
on Newport, and urging him not to retire until he had 
assisted in expelling the enemy from Georgia, he determined 
to comply with this request. On the 1st of September he 
appeared off Savannah, and having sent word of his arrival 
to General Lincoln, at Charleston, a combined American 
and French force soon afterward prepared to invest the 
city. D'Estaing now imperiously summoned Prevost to 
surrender, in the name of the King of France. The English 
general, anxious to gain time, artfully protracted the nego- 
tiation till Colonel Maitland had returned, with the rest 
of his troops, when he set the besiegers at defiance. He 
had laboured so incessantly to strengthen the fortifications, 
that regular approaches became necessary, and the works 
were pushed on till the 3d of October, when the place 
was bombarded with the utmost fury. Prevost begged that 
an asylum might be granted to the suffering women and 
children, on board a French ship, till the issue of the siege 
was decided, but this request was rudely refused. No im- 
pression whatever was made upon the works, and D'Estaing, 
with his fleet exposed on the coast during the stormy season, 
and liable to be attacked at disadvantage by the English, 
felt unwilling to remain until the approaches could be car- 
ried to completion, and was compelled to hazard an assault. 
The French and American columns, headed by D'Estaing 
and Lincoln, advanced to the attack with mutual emulation, 
but so desperate was the resistance of the besieged, and so 
well served their artillery, that after a terrible slaughter, 
amidst which Count Pulaski met his fate, the assailants were 
compelled to retire, and precipitately abandon the siege. 



GEORGE WASHINGTON". 115 

The unfortunate issue of this affair deepened the disgust 
already inspired by the abortive attack on Newport. 

Another deplorable reverse was experienced this season 
by the State of Massachusetts. A small British force having 
established themselves on the Penobscot, an armament of 
nineteen ships, carrying a body of fifteen hundred militia, 
were sent to dislodge them, under the command of General 
Lovell. Finding that the enemies' works were too strong to 
be taken by the force at his command, Lovell sent back for 
reinforcements. While waiting for them he was surprised 
by five British men-of-war, which burned the vessels, and 
scattered the troops, who had to make their way in small 
parties through a pathless wilderness, before they reached 
the confines of civilization. 

To check incursions on the part of the Tories and their 
Indian allies. General Sullivan was sent with a considerable 
force against Fort Niagara, their head-quarters. Ascending 
the Upper Susquehanna, and routing on the way a force, 
under Brant, the Butlers, and Johnson, he penetrated the 
forests into the valley of the Genesee, hitherto unvisited, 
but exhibiting a far higher degree of civilization than it 
was supposed the Indians had then attained. Orchards of 
ancient growth, corn-fields, and well-built timber houses, 
attested a long and quiet occupation of the soil. This 
smiling scene was converted into a wilderness by the 
invaders, in the hope that starvation would compel the 
Indians to retire to a greater distance. It was, however, 
found impossible to reach Niagara, and Sullivan returned 
with his brigade to Easton, in Pennsylvania. No per- 
manent rehef was produced by this inroad ; the Indians 
soon returned with increased fury, and the frontier was 
kept in a state of excitement until the termination of the 
war. 

During the campaign, Washington remained with his 
troops in the neighbourhood of the Highlands, where the 



116 GEORGE WASHINGTON. 

new fortificcations of West Point were being rapidly carried 
to completion. His position and force were too strong to 
enable Sir Henry Clinton to attack him, his own too weak 
to hazard an attack upon New York, and he wisely avoided 
all attempts to draw on a general engagement. Yet 
although prevented from mingling in active operations, 
he was still the directing soul of distant movements, and 
continually engaged in correspondence. 

This forced inaction was far from being agreeable to 
Washington, and in the hope that Count D'Estaing would 
return to the north after his abortive visit to Newport, the 
French ambassador had repaired to head-quarters, to con- 
cert an attack upon New York, by the combined French 
and American forces. The season, however, wore away 
without the appearance of D'Estaing, and the failure of 
his attack on Savannah put an end to this plan, which 
always remained a favourite one with Washington. 

The state of the army had been much improved since 
the last winter, by the strenuous labours of General Greene, 
who had reluctantly undertaken the imj^ortant, but un- 
grateful, office of quartermaster-general. Loud complaints 
were, nevertheless, made of the enormous expense of his 
department, and it was with difficulty he was prevailed on 
to serve a little longer. By the depreciation of the paper 
money, prices were now nominally enormous. The first issues 
made by Congress had never been redeemed, and they had 
now put into circulation notes to the amount of two hun- 
dred millions of dollars. Forty of these paper dollars were, 
at this time, worth but one in specie. The attempt to 
regulate prices was abortive, a serious riot taking place 
upon this ground in Philadelphia. To bolster up the credit 
of the paper, it was made legal tender for debts contracted 
at specie prices ; the fraudulent and embarrassed took this 
means of paying their debts, and Washington himself 
suffered from this species of legal swindling. Owing to 



GEORGE WASHINGTON. 117 

these causes, and to the early approach of winter, the army 
began to experience the distresses of the last. " For a fort- 
night past," said "Washington, in his letter to the magistrates 
of New Jersey, " both officers and men have been almost 
perishing for want. They have been alternately without 
bread or meat the whole time, with a very scanty allowance 
of either, and frequently destitute of both. They have 
borne their sufferings with a patience that merits the appro- 
bation, and ought to excite the sympathy, of their country- 
men." Such was the distress, that Washington was 
obliged, for a while, to call upon the States to furnish 
specific supplies of grain and cattle for his suffering troops. 

As far as the north was concerned, the results of the 
year are well summed up in a letter from Washington to 
his ffiend La Fayette, who had returned for a while to 
France. "The operations of the enemy, this campaign, 
have been confined to the establishment of works of defence, 
taking a post at King's Ferry, and burning the defenceless 
towns of New Haven, Fairfield, and Norwalk on the Sound, 
within reach of their shipping, where little else was, or 
could be opposed to them, than the cries of distressed 
women and children, but these were offered in vain. Since 
these notable exploits, they have never stepped out of their 
works or beyond their lines. How a conduct of this kind 
is to effect the conquest of America, the wisdom of a North, 
a Germaine, or a Sandwich, can best decide. It is too deep 
and refined for the comprehension of common understand- 
ings, and the general run of politicians." 

The campaign of 1780 was opened with spirit by Sir 
Henry Clinton. Leaving a force in New York more than 
sufficient to keep Washington at bay, he sailed for Charles- 
. ton. The passage was tempestuous ; some of the vessels 
were lost, together with all the horses. The people of 
Charleston gained intelligence of the proposed attack from 
some prisoners captured in one of the injured vessels, and 



118 GEORGE WASHINGTON. 

immediately prepared for a vigorous defence. Governor 
Rutledge was invested with dictatorial powers. General 
Lincoln mustered a considerable, though inadequate army, 
and strengthened the defences of the city. Soon after the 
capture of the city, CHnton's detachments overran and 
subdued South Carolina; and when Sir Henry sailed for 
New York, leaving CornwalHs with four thousand men at 
Charleston, it was thought that the patriots were completely 
crushed in that section of the country. But a fierce parti- 
san warfare began not long afterwards, in which the British 
suffered severe losses. Marion and Sumpter led the patriots, 
while Tarleton and Brown were the chief partisans on the 
side of the enemy. 

Washington detached what force he could spare to form 
the nucleus of a new southern army, under the command 
of General Gates. Advancing southward, this army was 
increased by reinforcements of mihtia to four thousand 
men. But on the 6th of August, Gates was entirely de- 
feated by Lord Cornwallis in a bloody battle near Camden, 
South Carolina. But now affairs took a turn in favour of 
the Americans. The brave, vigilant, and skilful Greene 
was sent to supersede Gates in the south. The backwoods- 
men of Tennessee and Kentucky gained the battle of King's 
Mountain ; and when the campaign of 1780 closed, the 
spirits of the patriots were once more raised to a confidence 
in ultimate triumph. 

At the opening of the season Washington's forces, at 
Middlebrook and the Highlands, were still occupied in 
watching those of the enemy at New York. The condition 
of the army, in spite of every effort, still continued to be 
deplorable. It was now that the distresses, which all the 
exertions of Ccrtigress fiiiled to relieve, called forth the par 
triotic exertions of the ladies of Philadelphia. All ranks 
and classes took a share in this good work. Mrs. Reed, 
the wife of General Reed, became the head of an association 



GEORGE WASHINGTON. 119 

for supplying the poor soldiers with a stock of raiment. 
Mrs. Bache, the daughter of Dr. Franklin, took also a 
zealous part in this labour of love and mercy. La Fayette, 
in the name of his wife, presented the society with a hun- 
dred guineas in specie, and the Countess de Luzerne also 
subscribed generously. Many disposed of their trinkets 
and ornaments, and those who had no money to spare 
exerted themselves no less effectively by cutting out and 
making up linen for the ragged and shivering defenders of 
their country. Twenty-two hundred shirts were thus for- 
warded to Washington's camp, an offering which not only 
greatly mitigated the sufferings of the troops, but by con- 
vincing them that they were not forgotten by their grateful 
countrywomen, tended to comfort and sustain them under 
the privations to which they were inevitably exposed. 

Before the end of April La Fayette arrived from France, 
with the joyful intelligence that the French government 
had fitted out an armament, the arrival of which might 
shortly be expected. So urgent was the enthusiastic 
marquis, that he had prevailed on the king to send over a 
body of land forces to act in concert with the republican 
troops. Such was his importunity, that the French minister 
said one day in council, "It is fortunate for the king that 
La Fayette does not take it into his head to strip Versailles 
of his furniture to send to his dear Americans, as his Ma- 
jesty would be unable to refuse it." Not content with these 
public succours, he generously expended large sums of his 
private fortune in providing swords and ajDpointments for 
the corps placed under his command. 

While the French troops were anxiously expected. Sir 
Henry Clinton returned from his successful attack on 
Charleston, and General Knyphausen was sent on an expe- 
dition into the Jerseys, its object being, as was supposed, to 
withdraw Washington from his encampment in that direc- 
tion, while a strong body was sent up the Hudson to besiege 



120 GEORGE WASHINGTON. 

West Point and the other posts on the Highlands. If such 
was indeed its purpose, it proved unsuccessful, and the mi- 
litia of the country coming forward with spirit, the invaders 
were soon compelled to retire. Thus harassed and repelled, 
the British and Hessian troops committed the same ravages 
which had signalized the incursion of Tryon. At Connec- 
ticut Farms they burned the Presbyterian church and a con- 
siderable part of the village. 

On the 10th of July a French fleet arrived at Newport, 
commanded by the Chevalier de Ternay, and the troops 
by the Count de Rochambeau. As experience had shown 
that much jealousy existed between the French and Ameri- 
cans, it had been wisely decided that the whole army should 
be placed under the orders of Washington, and that the 
American ofiicers should take precedence of the French 
when of equal rank, — an arrangement which obviated the 
heart-burnings and contentions that would otherwise have 
inevitably occurred. It was now the first wish of Wash- 
ington to carry out his long-cherished idea of an attack 
upon New York by the combined forces, and a plan to that 
efiect was drawn up and conveyed by La Fayette to the 
French commander. The French troops were to march 
from Newport to Washington's old quarters at Morrisiaua, 
where the Americans would form a junction with them. 
This arrangement, however, supposed the superiority of the 
French naval force over that of the British, and this was 
entirely disconcerted by the speedy arrival of Admiral 
Graves with reinforcements for the English fleet. The latr 
ter, now superior in force, blockaded the French in Newport, 
while Sir Henry Clinton left New York with a large force 
to attack the French and Americans. Finding, however, 
that their force was largely increased by the neighbouring 
miUtia, and fearing lest Washington might Ml upon New 
York during his "absence, he speedily returned to that city. 
Thus was the co-operation of the French and Americans 



GEORGE WASHINGTON. 121 

again destined to become, for the present, abortive, No- 
thins; could be done until the arrival of Count de Guichen 
from the West Indies with his fleet, or that of a fleet pre- 
paring to set out from Brest. The former, however, re- 
turned to France without visiting the anxious Americans, 
and the latter, blockaded by a British squadron, was unable 
to repair to their assistance. 

The gloom and disappointment thus occasioned was in- 
finitely deepened by the discovery of an act of treachery, 
which, had it proved successful, as, but for circumstances 
apparently trivial, it would have done, would have struck 
a deadly, perhaps a fatal, blow at the cause for which 
America was strusfarlinQ:. The works at West Point had 
now been carried to completion, and it was regarded as the 
most important fortress in the country. Not only did it 
form the centre of communication between the eastern and 
middle States, but was the principal deposit for the stores 
and munitions of the army. Sir Henry Clinton had long 
been anxious to obtain possession of this stronghold, and 
what he could vainly hope to obtain by force, an act of 
unparalleled baseness now seemed ready to place within 
his grasp. 

For daring, impetuous valour, Arnold was justly regarded 
as the most brilliant officer in the American service. His 
romantic expedition to Canada, his naval battle on Lake 
Champlain, and especially his desperate bravfery at the bat- 
tles of Behmus Heights, had covered him with military 
glory. Disabled from active service by a wound received 
on this last occasion, he had been appointed to the command 
of the troops in Philadelphia. Here, as one of the leading 
men in the city, and being vain and fond of display, he 
launched out into a style of living very far beyond his 
means. He had married a beautiful and accomplished girl 
much younger than himself, the daughter of a Mr. Shippen, 
one of the leading Tories, who had been an object of great 
15 



122 GEORGE WASHINGTON. 

attraction to the British ofiicers during their occupation of 
Philadelphia, and had kept up a correspondence with Major 
Andre, adjutant-general of the army, and a great favourite 
of Sir Henry Clinton. 

Pressed by increasing expenses, Arnold's position soon 
became desperate, and in order to relieve his embarrass- 
ments, he was tempted to abuse his office to unworthy pur- 
poses. The council of Penns3dvania brought certain 
accusations against him, which, after some delay, were sub- 
mitted to a military tribunal. Acquitted of the more 
serious charge, he was nevertheless sentenced to a reprimand 
from the commander-in-chief. Washington administered 
the rebuke with the greatest delicacy and feeling. " Our 
service," he observed to him, " is the chastest of all. Even 
the shadow of a fault tarnishes the lustre of our finest 
achievements. The least inadvertence may rob us of the 
public favour, so hard to be acquired. I reprimand you for 
having forgotten, that in proportion as you had rendered 
yourself formidable to our enemies, you should have been 
guarded and temperate in your deportment toward your 
fellow-citizens. Exhibit anew those noble qualities which 
have placed you on the list of our most valued command- 
ers. I will myself furnish you, as far as it may be in my 
power, with opportunities of gaining the esteem of your 
country." How must Arnold's cheek have been suffused 
with shame, and his heart filled with rage and remorse, 
conscious that at that very moment he had already been 
eight months in secret, if not treasonable, correspondence 
with the enemy. 

Overwhelmed with debt, and having resigned his command, 
Arnold now tried to obtain a loan from the French minis- 
ter, who, much as he admired the soldier, could not but des- 
pise the man, and while he refused his request, administered 
to him a delicate but cutting reproof " You desire of me 
a service," he said, " which it would be easy for me to ren- 



GEORGE WASHINGTON. 123 

der, but which would degrade us both. When the envoy 
of a foreign power gives, or, if you will, lends money, it is 
ordinarily to corrupt those who receive it, and to make 
them the creatures of the sovereign whom he serves." 
Driven to desperation, insulted by the populace, and galled 
by the malignant satisfaction of his enemies, Arnold now 
meditated the blackest treason, disguising it to his own mind 
under the plea of what he chose to consider his country's 
ingratitude. Through the medium of his wife he opened 
a secret correspondence in a feigned hand and name with 
Major Andre, promising, if duly rewarded, to render a ser- 
vice as important to the royalist, as it would be ruinous to 
the republican cause. Whether his wife was ignorant of 
the nature of the correspondence, or, as many suppose, the 
original tempter to the crime, is a question that would seem 
never to have been satisfactorily ascertained. 

Arnold's next step was to obtain the command of West 
Point, readily granted him by the unsuspecting Washington. 
No sooner had he done so, than he proposed, for a certain 
sum, to betray it into the hands of Clinton. 

To be sure that he was not duped, a conference was re- 
quired by the British general with his hidden correspondent, 
and both by Arnold and Clinton Major Andr(^ was fixed 
upon to negotiate the bribe, and concert the necessary ar- 
rangements for the delivery of the fortress. That officer, 
whatever may have been nis secret dislike to the office, felt 
it to be his duty in the interest of his country's service, to 
offer no opposition to the wish of his chief. He therefore 
accepted the unpleasant task, being specially instructed by 
Clinton not to change his dress, nor, by venturing within 
the American lines, lay himself open to the charge of being 
a spy. To facilitate the design, the Vulture sloop of war, 
having Major Andre on board, ascended the Hudson river, 
as far as Teller's Point. Arnold's difficulty was now to get 
Andre on shore. The traitor himself was then occupying 



124 GEORGE WASHINGTON. 

the house of one Smith, either his accomphce or dupe, 
whom he persuaded to go off and fetch him. At midnight 
on the 21st of September, Smith rowed off to the Vulture. 
Andre descended into the boat, and both landed at the foot 
of a lofty wooded mountain, where Arnold, concealed - 
among the trees, was anxiously awaiting his arrival. The 
remaining hours of night were too brief to settle all the 
details of their conference; the dawn was approaching; 
Smith, full of alarm, entreated them to break it off. Ar- 
nold urgently pressed Andr6 to accompany him as far as 
Smith's house, assuring him he might do so without the 
slightest danger. In an evil hour he complied with this 
request. Mounting a horse brought by a servant, he passed 
with Arnold the American lines at Haverstraw, and having 
reached Smith's house, the forenoon was spent in concerting 
the details of the surrender. Arnold furnished him with 
an exact account of the force at West Point, which he de- 
sired him to conceal in his stockings, gave him a pass, in 
the name of Anderson, to cross the hues, and then returned 
to his head-quarters at Robinson's house, opposite West 
Point. Meanwhile, sensible that he had come on shore 
without a flag, Andre began to be seriously uneasy. He 
had intended to return on board the Vulture, but in the 
interim, the commander of a battery had opened a can- 
nonade on that ship, for which he was reprimanded, as an 
idle waste of powder and shot. That discharge decided 
the fate of Andre, and, perhaps, the destinies of America. 
The Vulture was obliged to retire some distance lower down 
the river, and Smith, afraid to pass the guard boats, now 
positively refused to take Andre on board, but offered to 
accompany him on horseback beyond the American lines, 
whence he could return to New York by land. Having no 
alternative, Andre reluctantly complied, having, at Arnold's 
suggestion;, exchanged his regimentals for an ordinary dress. 
They set out a little before sunset, crossed the river at 



GEORGE WASHINGTON. , 125 

King's Ferry to Verplanck's Point, and it loeing now dark, 
took the road towards New York. At the outposts they 
were challenged by a sentinel. Andre's pass was closely 
scrutinized by the officer on duty, and many and close in- 
quiries addressed to him. At length, to his infinite satis- 
faction, he was released with an apology, and advised to 
remain all night, on account of the marauders with which 
the neutral ground was infested. It was only after great 
persuasion on the part of Smith, that Andre consented to 
do so, and the former afterwards declared that he passed 
the night in great restlessness and uneasiness. At the dawn 
of day they were again in the saddle ; and now, consider- 
ing himself beyond the reach of danger, the spirits of the 
young officer, which had hitherto been depressed by the 
sense of danger, recovered their natural elasticity. After 
breakfasting on the road they parted, and Andre continued 
his road towards New York alone. 

The tract upon which he now entered was called " the 
Neutral Ground," extending thirty miles along the Hudson, 
between the English and American lines. It was infested 
by two gangs of marauders, the offspring of civil com- 
motion, respectively denominated Cow-boys and Skinners. 
The former were mostly refugees attached to the British 
side, who made it their vocation to drive off cattle to the 
army at New York. The Skinners were professed patriots, 
but were detested even more than the Cow-boys by their 
own countrymen, between whom and the enemy they made 
but small distinction in their predatory expeditions. 

It happened that on the morning a party, consisting of 
John Paulding and two associates, had concealed themselves 
by the road, on the look-out for cattle or travellers. Pauld- 
ing, it is said, had escaped from prison in New York only 
three days before, in the disguise of a German yager, which 
he then wore. Seeing a gentleman approach, he sprung 
out and seized his bridle, and presenting his firelock, de- 



126 GEORGE WASHINGTON. 

manrled of liim where he was going. Andre, deceived by 
the dress, exclaimed, " Thank God, I am once more among 
friends !" and addressing the men, said, " I hope you belong 
to our party." "What party?" exclaimed his captors. 
" The Lower (or British) party," was his reply; upon which, 
they rejoined that they did. Andre, thus deceived, im- 
prudently avowed himself a British officer bound upon 
urgent business. They now caused him to dismount, and 
conducted him into a thicket, cut his saddle and cloak 
lining, as Andre himself declared, in quest of money, and 
not finding it, said, "He may have it in his boots;" which, 
with his stockings, they caused him to pull off. The papers 
which Arnold had given him at parting were thus discovered. 
Their suspicions were now aroused, and, notwithstanding 
the offers of Andre to give them what he had, which, 
however, was but a small sum in paper, and send them any 
amount they might desire, Paulding and his companions, 
prompted by patriotic motives, refused his most tempting 
offers, and persisted in conducting him to North Castle, the 
nearest military post, where he was delivered up to Lieu- 
tenant-Colonel Jameson, the officer in command. 

Jameson, having looked over the papers, was in a state 
of great perplexity, never entertaining the most distant 
suspicion of Arnold. He decided at length on forwarding 
his prisoner to that general, informing him that he had sent 
the papers, found in Andre's boots, to Washington, as being 
of " a very dangerous tendency." Andr6 accordingly was 
on his way to West Point, with a guard, when Major Tall- 
madge, next in command to Jameson, stated his suspicions 
of treachery, and earnestly begged that the prisoner might 
be recalled. With some reluctance his request was granted, 
the letter to Arnold was sent forward, and Andre, who 
might otherwise have escaped with Arnold, was brought 
back again. Finding his papers had been sent to Washing- 
ton, he now wrote him a letter, explaining his name and 



GEORGE WASHINGTON- 127 

rank, and giving a clear and candid account of the circum- 
stances under which he had been betrayed within the 
American hnes. This letter he handed to Tallmadge, who, 
though he had suspected that his captive was a military 
man, now found, to his surprise, that he was adjutant- 
general to the British army. 

Meanwhile Washington, w o, on his return from Hart- 
ford, had passed the night at Fishkill, set off with his suite 
before dawn, with the intention of breakfasting with Arnold 
at Robinson's house. When nearly opposite West Point 
he turned his horse down a lane, when La Fayette re- 
minded him that he was taking the wrong road, and that 
Mrs. Arnold was, no doubt, waiting breakfast for them. 
"Ah," replied Washington, jokingly, "I know you young 
men are all in love with Mrs. Arnold, and wish to get 
where she is as soon as possible. You may go and take 
your breakfast with her, and tell her not to wait for me, 
for I must ride down and examine the redoubts on this side 
the river, and will be there in a short time." His officers, 
however, declined to leave him, and two of his aides-de- 
camp were sent forward to explain the cause of the delay. 

On learning that Washington and his suite would not be 
there for some time, Arnold and his family sat down to 
breakfast with the aides. While they were yet at table. 
Lieutenant Allen came in, and presented the letter from 
Jameson, informing Arnold that ^'^ Major ^ Andre, of the 
British army, was a ]yrisatier in his custody T Controlling 
his agitation, he arose, with the letter in his hand, and 
telling his companions that his presence was urgently re- 
quired at West Point, he went up stairs to his wife's cham- 
ber, and sent to call her. In a few words he explained to 
her that he must fly for his life, and that they might never 
meet again. She fell in a swoon upon the floor. Kissing 
his child, he hastily descended to the river-side, and entered 
his six-oared barge, telling the men that he was going on 



128 GEORGE WASHINGTON. 

board the Vulture with a flag. Unconscious of his purpose, 
and stimulated by the promise of drink, they exerted them- 
selves to the utmost to reach the vessel. Arnold, leaping 
on board, was placed beyond the reach of pursuit. 

Soon after he had departed, Washington returned, and 
after breakfasting, determined to cross over to West Point. 
As the whole party glided across the river, surrounded by 
the majestic scenery of the Highlands, Washington said, 
" Well, gentlemen, I am glad, on the whole, that General 
Arnold has gone before us, for we shall now have a salute, 
and the roaring of the cannon will have a fine efiect among 
these mountains." The boat drew near to the beach, but 
no cannon were heard, and there was no appearance of 
preparation to receive them. " What," said Washington, 
" do they not intend to salute us ?" As they landed, an 
officer descended the hill, and apologized for not being pre- 
pared to receive such distinguished visiters. " How is this, 
sir?" said Washington; "is not General Arnold here?" 
" No, sir," replied the officer, " he has not been here these 
two days, nor have I heard from him within that time." 
"This is extraordinary," said Washington, "we were told 
he had crossed the river, and that we should find him 
here ;" and then ascended the hill, and inspected the forti- 
fications. On his return to the house he was encountered 
by Hamilton, who, taking him aside, placed in his hands 
the papers forwarded by Jameson, together with the letter 
of Andre. Washington was deeply distressed, for no officer 
had rendered more important service to America than Ar- 
nold, or might have seemed more deeply pledged to it. 
"Whom can we trust now?" he sadly exclaimed to his 
companions. The house was a scene of misery. Arnold's 
wife was frantic with grief, and the sympathies of Wash- 
ington and his officers were warmly excited for her deplo- 
rable situation. Shortly afterward a letter came in from 
Arnold, begging protection for his wife and child. " I have 



GEORGE WASHINGTON. 129 

no favour," said the hardened traitor, " to ask for myself, 
I have too often experienced the ingratitude of my country 
to attempt it, but from the known humanity of your Ex- 
cellency, I am induced to ask your protection for Mrs. 
Arnold from every insult and injury that a mistaken ven- 
geance of my country might expose her to. It ought only 
to fall on me. She is as innocent as an angel, and is inca- 
pable of doing wrong." Such an appeal was, however, 
unnecessary; the heart of Washington felt for the unhappy 
woman, and she received from him a pass to repair to her 
husband at New York. 

Andre was conducted to Tappan, and tried by a court 
mai'tial, of which General Greene was president. He was 
condemned as a spy, and sentenced to be hung. 

On learning the nature of his sentence, Andre wrote a 
pathetic letter to Washington, entreating that he might be 
allowed to die the death of a soldier. Deeply affected, the 
commander-in-chief referred the subject to his officers, who 
unanimously desired that Andre should be shot, with the 
sole exception of General Greene, the president. " Andre," 
said he, " is either a spy, or an innocent person. If the 
latter, to execute him, in any way, will be murder ; if the 
former, the mode of his death is prescribed by law, and you 
have no right to alter it. Nor is this all. At the present 
alarming crisis of our affairs the public safety calls for a 
solemn and impressive example. Nothing can satisfy it 
short of the execution of the prisoner as a common spy ; a 
character of which his own confession has clearly convicted 
him. Beware how you suffer your feelings to triumph 
over your judgment. Indulgence to one may be death to 
thousands. Through mistaken sensibility, humanity may 
be wounded, and the cause of freedom sustain an injury 
you cannot remedy. 

" Besides, if you shoot the prisoner instead of hanging 
him, you will excite suspicions which you will be unable to 
16 



130 GEORGE WASHINGTON. 

allay. Notwithstanding all your efforts to the contrary, 
you will awaken public compassion, and the belief will be- 
come general that, in the case of Major Andre, there were 
exculpatory circumstances, entitling him to lenity beyond 
what he received — perhaps entitling him to pardon. Hang 
him, therefore, or set him free." The arguments of Greene 
prevailed, and the ignominious sentence was accordingly 
confirmed. 

Compassion for Andre and detestation for Arnold now 
suggested to Washington the idea of effecting, if possible, 
an exchange, and transferring the penalty to be incurred 
by the former, upon the guilty head of the latter. This 
proposal was indirectly made to Sir Henry Clinton, but 
deeply as he loved Andre, and much as he must have des- 
pised Arnold, yet honour forbade that he should give up 
the traitor to the vengeance of his injured country. 

Major Andre died with great firmness, though feeling 
keenly the degrading character of his death. 

Arnold was rewarded for his treachery by a present of 
ten thousand pounds, and the rank of Colonel in the British 
army. But he was secretly detested by all the brave spirits 
among the invaders. 

The last year of the war of independence (1781) opened 
gloomily for the Americans. The regular troops had 
endured the extremity of hardship without repining, but 
now, Without pay or clothing, forgotten as it seemed by an 
ungrateful country, they at length broke out into mutiny, 
and resolved to wring from the fears of Congress what they 
had failed to obtain from their justice or their pity. On 
the night of the 1st of January, at a concerted signal, the 
whole Pennsylvania line turned out and declared their 
intention of marching upon Philadelphia. Their officei's 
sought in vain to restrain them ; in their mood of exasperor 
tion they killed one of them, and wounded several others. 
When even AVayne himself advanced with a cocked pistol, 



GEORGE WASHINGTON. 131 

tliey pointed their bayonets at his breast, exdaiming, 
" General, we love, we respect you, but if you fire you are 
a dead man. We are not going to desert to the enemy. 
AVere he in sight this moment, you would see us fight under 
your orders in defence of our country. We love liberty, 
but we cannot starve." Finding them fixed in their deter- 
mination, Wayne sent provisions after them to prevent 
their plundering the inhabitants, and proposed to the ser- 
geants who had been elected leaders of the revolt to send 
a deputation to Congress. The soldiers, however, were not 
in a mood to temporize, and insisted on marching forward. 
At Trenton, they were met by three emissaries of Sir Henry 
Clinton, who had seized what he thought the propitious 
moment to seduce them by liberal promises. But however 
exasperated by their sufferings, the men disdained the idea, 
as they said, of becoming Arnolds; and they seized upon 
their British tempters, who were afterwards tried and exe- 
cuted as spies. 

In this alarming state of things, when the refusal of their 
claims might induce them to disband and return to their 
homes. Congress, obliged to bend, sent a deputation to meet 
and conciliate the mutineers. Suffering as they were, one 
great cause of dissatisfaction was the construction put upon 
the terms of enlistment, which, as they contended, were 
for three years or the war, instead of and the war, whereas 
their officers insisted on having it. On this point Congress 
were obliged to give way, and a considerable number were 
disbanded. A timely supply of clothing and certificates for 
the speedy discharge of their arrears of pay, induced the 
remainder to resume their duty. 

Washington had watched this sudden movement with 
the deepest anxiety. While he felt on one hand, the sub- 
stantial justice of the demands thus made, he feared lest a 
compliance with them might induce the whole army to 
adopt a similar method of obtaining redress., He took this 



132 GEORGE WASHINGTON. 

occasion of urging upon the New England States the 
necessity of subsidies that could no longer be safely denied, 
and a large sum of money, equal to three months' pay, the 
timely distribution of which checked any disposition to 
mutiny in the troops belonging to those states. But the 
New Jersey line shortly breaking into revolt, he determined 
to employ the most vigorous measures of repression. The 
precaution had already been taken of ordering a thousand 
trusty men to hold themselves in readiness for service ; six 
hundred of these were marched down to compel the rioters 
to surrender. Their camp was surrounded, and finding 
themselves taken by surprise, they were obliged to parade 
without their arms and make unconditional submission. 
Two of the ringleaders were shot ; and by this painful but 
summary method, the evil was prevented from spreading 
any further. 

The able financier, Robert Morris, now came to the aid 
of Congress, and employed his wealth and ability in restor- 
ing the credit of the country. Affairs soon assumed a more 
cheerful aspect. Loans were obtained from France and 
Holland, which were of great importance at this crisis. 

In the South, General Greene, having organized a more 
efficient army than the Americans had yet possessed in that 
quarter, opened the campaign with vigour and success. 
Under the greatest disadvantages, he boldly attempted the- 
conquest of the Carolinas, as well as the protection of Vir- 
ginia. His policy was to harass and divide the royal army, 
intimidate the Tories, and cut off the supplies ; to avoid a 
general engagement, except where victory would be little 
less ruinous to the royal army than a defeat ; to permit no 
repulse to discourage him, but turn again on his pursuers 
at the earliest opportunity, and fairly exhaust them with a 
tedious campaign. In his operations, he was greatly aided 
by an efficient body of light troops, commanded by General 
Morgan and Colonel Henry Lee. On the 17 th of January, 



GEORGE WASHINGTON". 133 

Morgan gained one of the most complete victories of the 
war, at the Cowpens, where he annihilated the famous par- 
tisan detachment of Tarleton. Morgan succeeded in joining 
Greene, and then commenced a retreat and a pursuit, in 
which the skill of Greene was splendidly displayed, while 
the rapid energy of Cornwallis was equally remarkable. 
The American commander effected his escape into Virginia, 
and then Cornwallis relinquished the pursuit. Soon after- 
wards. Colonel Lee recrossed the Dan, and annihilated a 
large force of Tories. By this severity, the disaffected were 
prevented from joining Cornwallis' army. Greene then led 
the main army across the Dan, and after some manoeuver- 
ing, ventured to meet his opponent near Guildford Court- 
house. The action was indecisive. Greene retired from 
the field, but the British were so much crippled that they 
soon after retreated to Wilmington. The American com- 
mander now boldly resolved to march into South Carolina, 
and leave Virginia open to Cornwallis. He took up a 
position at Hobkirk's Hill, where he was attacked and de- 
feated by Lord Rawdon. But, with his usual skill, he ral- 
lied his forces, and presented as formidable a front as ever. 
Rawdon was at length compelled to evacuate Camden and 
retire to Charleston. The American commander now be- 
sieged the strong post of Ninety-Six, but Rawdon advanc- 
ing with reinforcements to its aid, he was compelled to 
retire. These reverses did not dishearten Greene. He 
said he would recover Soulh Carolina or perish in the at- 
tempt. Soon afterwards, he pressed operations so vigor- 
ously that Rawdon was thrown upon the defensive, and 
Ninety-Six was evacuated. Both armies then sought re- 
pose from the fatigues of an arduous campaign (July). 
Rawdon returning to Europe, the British army was left 
under the command of Colonel Stuart. 

During the oppressive heats Greene continued on the 
salubrious Santee Hills, engaged in exercising his army and 



134 GEORGE WASHINGTON. 

rendering it more capable of encountering that of the enemy, 
against whom he determined to advance. On the 21st of 
August, having received a supply of horses for his cavalry, 
he left his encampment, and taking a circuitous direction, 
fell in with the English army at the Eutaw Springs. Here, 
on the morning of the 8th of September, was fought one 
of the bloodiest and most obstinately contested engagements 
during the whole war. The number of the combatants was 
about equal, and the struggle was maintained on both sides 
with obstinate valour and varying success. Both parties 
resorted to the bayonet, and used it with equal skill and 
determination, many individuals of both armies being 
mutually transfixed with the deadly weapon. At length 
the English left, attacked simultaneously in front and flank, 
gave way, covered by the English infantry under Major 
Marjoribanks. Colonel Washington, being sent to charge 
him with his cavalry, got entangled in an almost impervious 
thicket, and was wounded and taken prisoner, and his de- 
tachment obliged to withdraw. As the broken English left 
fell back, they threw themselves into a large brick-house, 
which enabled Stuart to rally his troops and reorganize his 
line of battle. This interruption cut short the progress of 
the Americans, and turned against them the tide of success. 
Greene's troops in vain attempted to force an entry, and 
even his artillery failed to dislodge the English. Their whole 
line now advanced, and having recovered the ground from 
which they had been driven, proceeded no further, while 
Greene also withdrew his troops. Both parties claimed a 
victory, and in proportion to their numbers their loss was 
about equal. But all the advantage was in favour of 
Greene, who, after falling back a few miles in quest of water, 
again advanced in quest of his enemy. Crippled as he was 
by this engagement, and fearing lest he should be cut off 
from Charleston, Colonel Stuart returned to Monk's Corner, 
his rear-guard being harassed by Marion and Lee. Thus 




iO'J 



GEORGE WASHINGTON. 137 

by the persevering policy of Greene were the English at length 
restricted to a narrow corner of Carolina, the whole of which 
they had so recently overrun as conquerors. Unable to 
pursue his advantages, owing to the weakness and almost 
destitution of his array, he returned to his encampment on 
the high hills of Santee. 

Virginia was now to become the scene of decisive ope- 
rations. Her coasts had been ravaged by the British fleets, 
and an army under the command of the infamous Arnold. 
The American forces in the state were placed under the 
command of General Steuben and La Fayette. Lord Corn- 
wallis, in consequence of Greene's bold inroad upon the 
Carolinas, had resolved to leave those provinces to be de- 
fended by the forces stationed there, and to carry his arms 
into Virginia. In pursuance of this plan, he crossed the 
Roanoke, and soon after effected a junction with the corps 
under Phillips, besides being reinforced by four regiments 
from New York, thus largely outnumbering the feeble force 
commanded by La Fayette, who, retiring before him, suc- 
ceeded in joining the Pennsylvania troops under Wayne. 
At the approach of the British general, the Assembly of 
Virginia adjourned from Richmond to Charlottesville. By 
the activity of Tarleton, however, several members were 
captured, and Jefferson himself had a very narrow escape. 
Destroying arms and stores, and ravaging the country be- 
fore them, the British troops continued to advance, followed, 
however, by La Fayette, who, with a judgment that would 
have done honour to a veteran commander, continued to 
hang upon the skirts and harass the progress of his able 
and powerful adversary. While thus overrunning Virginia, 
Cornwallis received an order from Sir Henry Clinton, then 
expecting an attack upon New York, to send him a detach- 
ment of his army, and after a smart skirmish with La 
Fayette, had reached Portsmouth, and actually embarked 
the troops, when he received a counter-order from his chief, 



138 GEORGE WASHINGTON. 

who, in tlie meanwhile, had been reHeved by reinforcements 
from England. According to his new instructions he was 
to retain the troops and establish himself at Portsmouth, 
where he could easily co-operate with an expected fleet. 
This station appearing, however, less favourable for the 
purpose than Yorktown, Cornwallis shortly after removed 
thither with his entire army, and diligently proceeded to 
throw up intrenchments to secure his new position. 

The French troops under Rochambeau were still at New- 
port, where they had remained inactive ever since their 
landing, and Washington and his army occupied the neigh- 
bourhood of the Highlands, when the welcome news arrived, 
that a powerful French fleet, commanded by the Count de 
Grasse, might shortly be expected on the American coasts. 
The favourite design of Washington, in which he had been 
so often disappointed, and which, could it be realized, would 
have proved a decisive and brilliant termination of the war, 
now seemed as if within the reach of accomplishment. An 
express was sent to the Count de Grasse, requesting him to 
direct his course to New York. Rochambeau's troops were 
marched to the Hudson, where they effected a junction with 
those of Washington. Thus was the city surrounded on 
the land side, and the arrival of De Grasse, to co-operate 
with the attack by sea, was expected with the greatest 
anxiety. After remaining in this state of high-wrought 
suspense for several weeks, Washington received despatches 
announcing that it was not the intention of the French 
admiral to come to New York, but repair to the Chesa- 
peake, and that his stay upon the coast must necessarily 
be brief Here seemed to occur another instance of the 
futility of French co-operation which had so often disap- 
pointed the hopes of the Americans. Never, it is said, was 
Washington more distressed and agitated than on the re- 
ceipt of this despatch. His attendants were obliged to leave 
him, and shut up in his own chamber, he gave way for a 



GEORGE TTASHINGTON. 139 

while to the uncontrollable excitement of his feelings. His 
wonted self-command, however, soon recovered the ascend- 
ancy, and he now applied all his energies to improve the 
opening afforded him by this new and unexpected turn of 
aflairs. 

The plan he formed wa.s to march upon Virginia, and 
with the expected succours enclose Cornwallis by land, 
while the fleet of De Grasse blockaded the river and pre- 
vented him from receiving help by sea. As Clinton and 
Cornwallis were alike unsuspicious and ignorant of his 
design, to the success of which secrecy and despatch w^ere 
above all essential, every possible artifice was made use of 
to conceal it. Batteries were established in New Jersey as 
if for extensive operations, surve^^s carried on, and other 
contrivances resorted to. But what especially served to 
cast a film over the eyes of Clinton, was the receipt of 
letters he had been artfully allowed to intercept. The 
bearer of one of these, a young man named Montagnie, was 
directed by Washington to proceed to Morristown by the 
way of the Ramapo Pass. Knowing it to be infested by 
the Cow-boys, he ventured to suggest that he should be sent 
some other road. "' Your duty, young man," said Wash- 
ington, stamping his foot, "is not to talk, but to obey." 
He set off, and, as he anticipated, was captured and thrown 
into prison at New York. His despatches, which contained 
the plan of an attack upon the city, were taken from him, 
and next da}' made their appearance in the gazette. Clinton 
was thoroughly bamboozled, and so fully satisfied that New 
York was the point about to be menaced, that even when 
Washington began to march his troops to the southward, 
he regarded it merely as a feint in order to throw him off 
his guard, and hugging himself with malicious satisfaction, 
remained securely within his defences. 

Profiting by this illusion, which he could not expect would 
long continue, Washington, ha\ing directed the formation 
17 



140 GEORGE WASHINGTON. 

of depots and transports at different points on the line of 
march, and ordered La Fayette to take up a position so as 
to intercept Cornwallis in case of his retreat, rapidly ad- 
vanced toward the scene of action. Having crossed the 
Jerseys and reached Philadelphia, a serious, and what might 
have been a fatal, interruption to their progress occurred. 
The soldiers of the eastern and middle states evinced great 
disinclination to march southward, and to put them in good 
humour, it was highly desirable to advance them a month's 
pay in specie. But the treasury was empty, and had it not 
been for Rochambeau, who advanced Morris a sufficient 
loan from the French military chest, to be replaced within 
thirty days, the consequences might have proved extremely 
serious. At this critical moment, Laurens arrived from 
France, after a successful mission, with a large supply of 
clothing, arms, ammunition, and specie. While the army 
2)ursued its march, Washington, accompanied by Rocham- 
beau, paid a hurried visit to Mount Vernon, for the first 
time during his long and anxious struggle of more than six 
years. Both generals then repaired to the camp of La 
Fayette, at Williamsburg, where they awaited with intense 
anxiety the news of De Grasse's arrival, which after all 
might be entirely frustrated by a superiority of the English 
at sea. 

In truth, the English admiral, Lord Rodney, expecting 
that a portion, though not the whole, of the French fleet 
would proceed to the coast of America, had despatched 
Hood with fourteen ships of the line, to reinforce the squad- 
ron of Graves, the commander of the English fleet. On 
the 25th of August, Hood arrived off the Chesapeake, and 
not finding his superior admiral, directed his course to 
New York. No sooner had he arrived there, than the news 
came that Du Barras, commander of the French fleet at 
Newport, had put to sea to effect a junction with the ex- 
pected fleet of De Grasse. The English admiral-in-chief 



GEORGE WASHINGTON". 141 

now sailed to prevent, if possible, this junction, and had 
reached the entrance to the Chesapeake, when he found 
De Grasse's fleet of twenty-four ships of the line at anchor 
within Cape Henry. Three thousand troops had already 
been landed, and some ships sent up the river to blockade 
Convwallis in Yorktown. The French admiral stood out 
to sea, and for five days artfully kept up a distant engage- 
ment, until assured that Barras also had safely entered the 
river, when he returned to his original position. Unsuc- 
cessful in his object, the English admiral was obliged to 
return disappointed to New York. 

Thus, while Lord Cornwallis was daily expecting the co- 
operation of an English fleet, he suddenly, to his astonish- 
ment, found himself blockaded both by land and sea. 
After so many abortive attempts at co-operation, the French 
and American forces, by this extraordinary concurrence of 
circumstances, so skilfully improved by Washington, were 
about to strike a final and decisive blow. 

The town of York, standing on an eminence above the 
river of that name, had, by the labours of the English 
troops, been rendered as strong as possible. Flanked and 
half-encircled on the right by a marshy ravine, it was ac- 
cessible only by a limited space, defended by strong lines 
flanked by a redoubt and bastion. On the opposite side of 
the river, here about a mile across, was Gloucester Point, 
defended by Colonel Tarleton with a body of cavalry. 

As soon as De Grasse had arrived, Washington repaired 
on board and concerted with him the plan of operations. 
Transports were sent for the American troops, who speedily 
joined those already before the place. The Americans were 
stationed on the right hand, the French upon the left, in a 
semicircular line extending on each side to the river. The 
post at Gloucester was merely blockaded ; but around York, 
the besieging army immediately began to construct regular 
approaches. 



142 GEORGE WASHINGTON. 

Strong as was the force by which he was invested, Corn- 
wallis was at first but little uneasy. The film having fallen 
from the eyes of Sir Henry Clinton, he determined to strain 
every nerve to throw succours into Yorktown, and had 
despatched a messenger with a letter in secret cipher, who 
succeeded in eluding the watchfulness of the American 
sentinels. This missive informed Cornwallis, that but for 
the damage sustained by Graves' ships he would at once 
repair to his assistance, but that by the 5th of October, as 
he hoped, they should be on their way to him with a fleet 
and army. Building somewhat too confidently on these 
anticipations, Cornwallis withdrew his troops from the outer 
line of defences, and concentrated them within the narrow 
limits of Yorktown. 

In order to create a diversion, and if possible induce 
Washington to withdraw a portion of his troops, Arnold, 
just returned from Virginia, was despatched with a con- 
siderable force, consisting chiefly of Hessians and Tories, 
to make a descent upon the New England coasts. Landing 
near the flourishing town of New London, and finding but 
little opposition from the militia, they set the town and 
shipping on fire ; Arnold, it is said, standing in a church 
belfry to witness the conflagration. On the opposite side 
of the river was Fort Griswold, into which the militia had 
retreated, and which might have facilitated the escaj)e of a 
portion of the shipping. Arnold, therefore, ordered it to 
be reduced. After being summoned in vain to surrender, 
it was attacked with great spirit, but just as bravel}^ de- 
fended ; and it was not until the British had sustained a 
heavy loss that they succeeded in effecting an entrance by 
storm* Colonel Ledyard, the commandant, now ordered 
his men to throw down their arms. One of the British 
officers, mortally wounded in the attack, had exhorted his 
comrades, in dying, to kill every man in the fort. Exas- 
perated at the protracted defence and the loss of several 



GEORGE WASHINGTON. 143 

officers, the British, instead of respecting the bravery of the 
defendants, commenced an indiscriminate massacre. " Who 
commands this garrison ?" shouted, as he entered, Majoi 
Bromfield, a New Jersey loyalist, at the head of the at- 
tacking party. " I did, sir, but you do now," said Led- 
yard, presenting his sword, with which his savage captor 
instantly ran him through the body. The place was 
ankle-deep in blood, and the slaughter went on till one of 
the officers exclaimed, " My soul can no longer bear this 
butchery." Seventy men were killed and thirty-five more 
dangerously wounded ; some of the latter were put into a 
baggage wagon, which was then thrust down the rugged 
surface of the hill, in the hope that it might plunge into 
the river and get rid of the poor wretches by a general 
noyade. The jolting of the wagon killed some outright and 
horribly tortured others, until arrested in its course by a 
tree. The prisoners were then taken out and confined all 
night in a neighbouring house, suffering, in addition to their 
other agonies, the extremities of thirst, until relieved next 
morning by Fanny Ledyard, niece to the murdered colonel, 
who came to their succour with a supply of necessaries. 
After these proceedings, as barbarous as they were useless 
in a military point of view, Arnold and his companions 
returned to New York. 

To return to the siege of Yorktown ; the besiegers, hav 
ing completed their works, upon which th.ey mounted a 
hundred pieces of cannon, opened a most destructive fire 
upon a place utterly inadequate to sustain it. Their balls 
even flew over the town into the river, and set on fire aii 
Englisli frigate and several transports. Cornwallis now 
received a second letter from Clinton, regretting that the 
departure of the promised reinforcements must inevitably 
be delated until the 12th. Hereupon several of his offi- 
cers suggested a timely evacuation, but he was unwilhng 
to surrender while any chance of succour yet remained. 



144 GEORGE WASHINGTON. 

Meanwhile the alUes, animated by the prospect of a speedy 
triumph, pushed their operations with such energy, that 
they were soon within three hundred yards of the place. 
Severely annoyed by the English redoubts, so placed as to 
enfilade their works, it was resolved, if possible, to carry 
them by storm. The capture of one was confided to the 
Baron de Viosmenil and a party of French ; the other, con- 
sisting of American troops, was headed by La Fa^'ette and 
Colonel Hamilton, the talented aid-de-camp of Washington. 
So warm was the emulation between the two detachments, 
and so vigorous their assault, that both the redoubts were 
carried, and included within the second parallel of the be- 
siegers. Cornwallis, whose position now grew desperate, 
endeavoured to check their progress by a vigorous sortie ; 
but the advantage thus gained was but momentary, and 
he wrote to Clinton, informing him that such was his dis- 
tress, that it was hardly worth while running any great 
risk in endeavouring to bring him relief. 

As a last desperate chance, the advice before rejected 
was now acted upon. On the night of the 16th, boats were 
prepared, and a portion of the army passed safely over to 
Gloucester Point. But as the second was on its way, there 
arose a violent storm of wind and rain, which dispersed 
the embarkations up and down the river. As morning 
approached the tempest ceased, and the scattered barks 
made their way back to Yorktown. 

To hold out any longer could only create unnecessary 
suffering, without improving the chance of escape. The 
works were ruined, the guns silenced, and the fire of the 
enemy swept the place. The garrison was enfeebled by 
sickness, and the result of an assault could not be doubtful. 
Painful as it must have been to a commander who had 
marched triumphantly across the land to find himself thus 
conquered by inevitable circumstances, he had no alternative 
but to send next morning a flag of truce, proposing an armis- 



GEORGE WASHINGTON. 145 

tice for twenty-four hours in order to arrange the terms of 
capitulation. 

As the British succours might arrive at any moment, 
only two hours were allowed to come to a decision. Ac- 
cording to the terms proposed by the British general, the 
garrison were to march out as prisoners of war with the 
usual honours, and be transported to England. The only 
alteration required by Washington, was that they should 
be retained in the country until the conclusion of the 
war. No promises could be obtained in favour of the 
Tories, but Lord Cornwallis was allowed to send a ship to 
convey despatches to Sir Henry Clinton, which, by agree- 
ment, departed without examination, and the unhappy 
refugees embraced this opportunity of retiring to New 
York. 

On the afternoon of the 19th of September, the British 
army marched out of Yorktown, and deposited their arms 
with the same formalities prescribed to the Americans on 
the surrender of Charleston. Lord Cornwallis was not 
present at the trying scene, but delegated to General O'Hara 
the task of surrendering his sword to General Lincoln. 
The whole number of prisoners, exclusive of seamen, 
rather exceeded 7000 men, of whom 3000 were not fit for 
duty ; the combined American and French forces, including 
militia, to about 16,000. 

This brilliant success far transcended all' previous antici- 
pations, and, indeed, had Lord Cornwallis been able to hold 
out a little longer (as he probably would had he not at an 
earlier period counted upon Clinton's arrival), the affair 
might after all have taken a different turn. Only five days 
afterward the British fleet, conveying an army of 7000 men, 
arrived off the mouth of the Chesapeake, but finding that 
Cornwallis had already surrendered, returned disappointed 
to New York. 

It is said that the news of the surrender reached Phila- 



146 GEORGE WASHINGTON". 

delpliia after the citizens had retired to rest, and that the 
watchmen, when proclaiming the midnight hour, added the 
starthng inteUigence, " CornwaUis is taken." The windows 
of the inhabitants flew up to assure themselves that what 
they heard was not a dream, and when assured of its reality, 
the candles were lighted, and the citizens, hastily throwing 
their clothes on, hurried into the streets, questioning, con- 
gratulating, and embracing each other. That night was 
not made for sleep. The tide of joy was too much for the 
bosom of one aged patriot, who, thanking God he had lived 
to see his hopes fulfilled, expired. When morning dawned 
and the glorious event was fully confirmed, the whole city 
was given up to rejoicing. The news flew like wildfire 
over the country, giving assurance to the people that the 
cause for which they had suffered so much, and of which, 
in the dark hour of defeat, they had often been tempted to 
despair, was now, in sober earnest, at length about to prove 
triumphant. 

Although fully participating in feelings, which to him, 
who thus saw his toils rewarded, must have been inex- 
pressibly sweeter, Washington was far from suffering his 
watchfulness to be lulled asleep. Brilliant as was the recent 
success, it might nevertheless fail to overcome the obstinacy 
of the English ministers. The war might be renewed, and 
Congress, and the people at large, tempted in the prospect 
of a speedy peace to relax from their long and arduous 
sacrifices, might be taken at a ruinous disadvantage. He 
therefore strenuously urged the necessity of keeping up the 
number of the troops, and maintaining a state of watchful 
preparation. He returned to the camp at Newburgh, and 
earnestly exerted himself, both by correspondence and 
personal labours, to place the army upon a footing efficient 
in case of the continuation of the war, and which, by 
showing that the Americans were still on the alert, might 
assist in procuring an honourable peace. 



GEORGE WASHINGTON. 147 

The capture of the renowned Cornwallis and his whole 
army convinced the British people of the hopeless struggle 
they had been sustaining ; and the government was brought 
to a sense of the necessity of recognising the independence 
of the United States. Two large and well-appointed armies, 
commanded by generals of experience and energy, had been 
captured by the Americans, and the war had cost the British 
government a vast amount of blood and treasure. A fur- 
ther prosecution of the contest could only result in a de- 
monstration of the weakness of the mother country. 

An act of parliament was now obtained, authorizing a 
negotiation with the colonies, which was presently opened 
at Paris by Mr, Oswald on the part of Great Britain, and 
Franklin, Jay, and Laurens on the part of the United 
States. 

As Vergennes, the French minister, hesitated to comply 
with the American claims to fish on the banks of Newfound- 
land, Franklin and Jay, at Oswald's suggestion, concluded 
a separate preliminary treaty with England. The sovereign 
independence of the United States was acknowledged, an 
unlimited right of the fisheries was conceded, and certain 
imaginary boundary hues agreed upon. This conclusion of 
a separate negotiation was contrary to the instructions of 
Congress, who had required that everything should be done 
in concert with their French allies, and it naturally gave 
offence to Vergennes, who, however, speedily gave his assent, 
and on the 3d of September, 1783, the treaty was defini- 
tively signed. 

During this interval the feelings of Washington were 
exposed to a painful trial. The end of the war was now 
in prospect, and yet, amidst the general exultation, the 
officers, their pay several months in arrear, were sufiering 
the most intolerable distress. Promises had indeed been 
made to them by Congress, at Washington's earnest entreat- 
ies, of enjoying a half-pay for life ; but if they had been 

18 



148 GEORGE WASHINGTON". 

neglected by that body while engaged in active service, it 
was feared that, when independence was achieved, they 
might be cast aside unrewarded and forgotten by an un- 
grateful country. Knowing that the negligence of Congress 
arose from the limited and uncertain nature of its powers, 
they feared not only for their own rights, but, perhaps, also 
for their country's safety under the existence of republican 
government; and they were tempted to meditate, under 
the auspices of their venerated chief, what they believed 
would be a firmer and more energetic system. Colonel 
Nicola, an officer through whom the distresses of the army 
had often been made known to Washington, was now made 
the organ of a proposal which might have excited the 
amljition of one of less pure and disinterested patriotism. 
After exposing the disadvantages of a republican govern- 
ment, and the desirableness of a limited monarchy, this 
writer proceeded as follows : " In this case it will, I believe, 
be uncontroverted, that the same abilities which have led 
us through difficulties, apparently insurmountable by human 
power, to victory and glory, those qualities that have merited 
and obtained the universal esteem and veneration of an 
army, would be most likely to conduct and direct us in the 
smoother paths of peace. Some people have so connected 
the ideas of tyranny and monarchy, as to find it very diffi- 
cult to separate them. It may, therefore, be requisite to 
give the head of such a constitution as I propose, some title 
apparently more moderate; but, if all things were once 
adjusted, I believe strong arguments might be produced for 
admitting the name of king, which I conceive would be 
attended with some material advantages." 

This communication must have been deeply distressing 
to Washington, who had so often defended his companions 
in arms against the insinuations and suspicions of their 
countrymen — -jealous as they were (and, as he must now 
have acknowledged, not altogether without reason) of the 



GEORGE WASHINGTON. 149 

dangers to be dreaded from the maintenance of a standing 
army. Yet he was but too well aware of the long though 
unavoidable neglect, and cruel extremity of suffering, that 
had extorted the movement; and thus his reply, full of a 
noble sternness, is softened by the expression of compassion- 
ate regard. 

"Newbury, 22 May, 1782. 

" Sir, — With a mixture of great surprise and astonish- 
ment I have read with attention the sentiments you have 
submitted to my perusal. Be assured, sir, no occurrence in 
the course of the war has given me more painful sensations, 
than your information of there being such ideas existing in 
the army as you have expressed, and I must view with 
abhorrence and reprehend with severity. For the present, 
the communication of them will rest in my own bosom, 
unless some further agitation of the matter shall make a 
disclosure necessary. 

" I am much at a loss to conceive what part of my con- 
duct could have given encouragement to an address, which 
to me seems big with the greatest mischiefs that can befall 
my country. If I am not deceived in the knowledge of 
myself, you could not have found a person to whom your 
schemes are more disagreeable. At the same time, in jus- 
tice to my own feelings, I must add, that no man possesses 
a more sincere wish to see ample justice done to the army 
than I do ; and as far as my powers and influence in a con- 
stitutional way extend, they shall be employed to the ut- 
most of my abilities to effect it, should there be any occasion. 
Let me conjure you, then, if you have any regard for your 
country, concern for yourself or posterity, or respect for 
me, to banish these thoughts from your mind, and never 
communicate, as from yourself or any one else, a sentiment 
of the like nature, I am, sir, &c., 

George Washington." 



150 GEORGE WASHINGTON. 

This was the subHmest portion of the Hfe of Washington 
— the conqueror achieving a victory over self — the general 
losing himself in the patriot — the popular hero submitting 
himself to the legal will of the people. Here his character 
soars beyond that of all other chieftains of whom history 
has preserved a record. Here he stands, the pride of hu- 
manity and the example of all time. 

The last events of importance in this protracted war, 
occurred in South Carolina and Georgia. In the former, 
Greene, with a gallant but poorly provided army, reduced 
the British possessions to the single post of Charleston, and 
at length had the satisfaction of seeing the enemy evacuate 
that town. In Georgia, Wayne maintained a successful 
contest with the Tories and Indians. When the treaty of 
peace was ratified, the Americans were in the ascendant in 
all parts of the country. The British forces evacuated the 
country under the superintendence of Sir Guy Carleton, 
who had been appointed to supersede Sir Henry Clinton. 

During the progress of the negotiations for peace, the 
northern army manifested a mutinous spirit. The troops 
had toiled and suffered long, and their claims upon Con- 
gress were unsatisfied. A memorial was drawn up re- 
quiring Congress to give security for fulfilling their engage- 
ments, and also proposing a commutation of a certain sum 
instead of the half-pay for life. To this proposition no de- 
finite or satisfactory answer was, nor could be, returned. 
Some members were desirous that Congress should assume 
the responsibility of satisfying the claims of the army, and 
others disposed to call upon the States to discharge their 
unsettled obligations. Between one and the other, the 
officers despaired of obtaining redress, and some of those 
more active in the movement employed a young and talented 
writer (Major Armstrong) to draw up certain anonymous 
letters, known as the " Newburgh Addresses," to stimulate 
the army to more energetic remonstrances, and extort from 



GEORGE WASHINGTON". 151 

the fears of Congress, what its weakness and disunion had 
prevented it from granting. The style of the letters was 
vivid and impassioned, and in the excited state of the army 
calculated to produce a deep and dangerous fermentation. 
After exposing with great energy their hopeless wrongs^ 
the writer demands of his fellow-soldiers, " Can you then 
consent to be the only sufferers by the revolution, and re- 
tiring from the field grow old in poverty, wretchedness, and 
contempt ? Can you consent to wade through the vile mire 
of dependency, and owe the miserable remnant of that life 
to charity which has hitherto been spent in honour ? If 
you can, go and carry with you the jest of Tories and the 
scorn of Whigs, the ridicule, and what is worse, the pity of 
the world ! go, starve, and be forgotten." 

Washington had a difficult and delicate task to perform. 
In his general orders he expressed his disapprobation of the 
anonymous letters and the proposed meeting at a new 
building called the Temple, and requested that the delegates 
from the whole army should assemble. Meanwhile, he 
took occasion privately to confer with the principal officers, 
and represent to them in the strongest colours the mis- 
chievous effect of any rash and premature measures, the 
dictates of passion and resentment. Having thus prepared 
their minds to listen to the voice of reason, at the appointed 
hour he repaired to the Temple, and stepped forth upon the 
platform in presence of his officers. There was a deep and 
solemn silence. Putting on his spectacles, he said, "You 
see, gentlemen, that I have not only grown gray, but hlind 
in your service." This simple remark touched them to the 
heart. For years had they borne the toil and burden of 
war under the leadership of their venerated chief, upon the 
purity of whose motives no shade ever rested, of the kind- 
ness of whose heart no one among them ever entertained a 
doubt. His empire over their feelings was irresistible, and 
as he read to them an address embodying the results of 



152 GEORGE WASHINGTON. 

calm and earnest reflection, the mist fell from their eyes, 
and the step to which they had been goaded by insupportable 
distress appeared in its legitimate colours. After dwelling 
at some length upon the incendiary character of the anony- 
mous letters, he turned to the advice which their author 
had not hesitated to ofier. " ' If peace takes place, never 
sheathe your swords,' says he, ' until you have obtained 
full and ample justice.' This dreadful alternative of either 
deserting our country in the extremest hour of her distress, 
or turning our arms against it — which is the apparent object 
— unless Congress can be compelled into instant compliance, 
has something so shocking in it, that humanity revolts at 
the idea. My God ! what can this writer have in view by 
recommending such measures ? Can he be a friend to the 
army ? Can he be a friend to this country ? Kather, is he 
not an insidious foe? some emissary, perhaps, from New 
York, plotting the ruin of both, by sowing the seeds of 
discord and separation between the civil and military powers 
of the continent ? And what a compliment does he pay to 
our understandings, when he recommends measures, in 
either alternative, impracticable in their nature !" 

Not satisfied with thus denouncing the intemperate rash- 
ness of the author, he applied himself to assuage the feel- 
ings and rekindle the hopes of his auditors. " Let me re- 
quest you," he continued, " to rely on the plighted faith of 
your country, and place a full confidence in the purity of 
the intentions of Congress, that previous to your dissolution 
as an army, they will cause all your accounts to be fairly 
liquidated, as directed in the resolutions which were pub- 
lished to you two days ago, and that they will adopt the 
most effectual measures in their power to render amj^le 
justice to you for your faithful and meritorious services. 
And let me conjure you, in the name of our common 
country, as you value your own sacred honour, as you re- 
spect the rights of humanity, and as you regard the military 



GEORGE WASHxxN^GTON". 153 

and national character of America, to express your own 
utmost horror and detestation of the man who wishes, 
under any specious pretences, to overturn the liberties of 
our country, and who wickedly attempts to open the flood- 
gates of civil discord, and deluge our rising empire in blood. 
By thus determining, and thus acting, you will pursue the 
plain and direct road to the attainment of your wishes; 
you will defeat the insidious designs of our enemies, who 
are compelled to resort from open force to secret artifice, 
you will give one more distinguished proof of unexampled 
patriotism and patient virtue, rising superior to the most 
complicated sufferings ; and you will, by the dignity of your 
conduct, afford occasion for posterity to say, when speaking 
of the glorious example you have exhibited to mankind, 
^ Had this day been wanting, the world had never seen the 
last stage of perfection to which human nature is capable 
of attaining.' " Having terminated this address, which was 
listened to in breathless silence, Washington departed with- 
out uttering another word. Under the influence of feelings 
thus awakened, the officers passed a vote, declaring their 
unshaken attachment to their chief, and their confidence in 
the justice of their country, denouncing the insidious at- 
tempt that had been made to tempt them from the path of 
their allegiance. 

In no instance probably did Washington render a greater 
service to his country, than in thus repressing the spirit of 
revolt in the army. Fortunately, as has been well observed, 
he was placed by his ample private fortune above the tempt- 
ation of want, and the confusion and excitement of mind 
that the fear of want is so liable to produce. But he was 
not satisfied with having recalled the suffering troops to a 
sense of duty, but continued to plead their cause until that 
justice, which indeed was only delayed for want of means, 
had been fully and satisfactorily granted. 

On the 25th of November, 1783, Washington and his 



154 GEORGE WASHINGTON. 

officers made a pu1)lic entry into the city of New York, 
amidst general manifestations of joy. A few days after- 
wards, the commander-in-chief prepared to retire to Mount 
Vernon. He took leave of his comrades in arms, with 
much feeling, and set out for his home, proceeding by easy 
stages, and welcomed as he passed along by public addresses 
and every work of affectionate regard. 

On reaching the seat of Congress (Annapolis in Maryland) , 
he deposited in the controller's office an account of his ex- 
penses, and informed the President that he was ready to 
resign his commission, in whatever way might be deemed 
most suitable by that body. They at once decided on a 
public reception ; and at the appointed hour, the hall being 
crowded by anxious spectators, and the members of Con- 
gress being seated, Washington was conducted to a chair 
by the secretary. After a few moments' pause, the Presi- 
dent apprised him that the United States, in Congress 
assembled, were prepared to receive his communication. 
Rising with that majestic dignity which clothed his every 
action, he briefly congratulated the assembly upon the 
happy termination of the war, resigned with satisfaction an 
appointment accepted with diffidence, and thus concluded 
his address : " Having now finished tlie work assigned me, 
I retire from the great theatre of action, and bidding an 
affectionate farewell to this august body, under whose 
orders I have so long acted, I here offer my commission, 
and take leave of all the employments of pubHc life." He 
then stepped forward to the chair of the President, and 
delivering his commission into his hands, awaited, while 
standing, the following impressive reply. It was a striking 
circumstance that this address was delivered by Mifflin, the 
lately elected President of Congress, and one of those who, 
as it was believed, when Washington's fair fame lay under 
a cloud, was among the most active and influential of his 
enemies. 



GEORGE WASHINGTON. 155 

"Sir," said Mifflin, "the United States, in Congress 
assembled, receive with emotions too affecting for utterance, 
the solemn resignation of the authority under which you 
have led their troops, with success, through a perilous and 
doubtful war. Called upon by your country to defend its 
invaded rights, you accepted the sacred charge before it 
had ibrmed alliances, and while it was without funds or a 
government to supjDort you. You have conducted the great 
military contest with wisdom and fortitude, invariably 
regarding the rights of the civil power through all disasters 
and changes. You have, by the love and confidence of 
your fellow-citizens, enabled them to display their martial 
genius, and transmit their fame to posterity. You have 
persevered until these United States, aided by a magna- 
nimous king and nation, have been enabled, under a wise 
Providence, to close the war in freedom, safety, and inde- 
pendence ; on which happy event we sincerely join you in 
congratulations. Having defended the standard of liberty 
in this New World, having taught a lesson useful to those 
who feel oppression, you retire from the great theatre of 
action with the blessings of your fellow-citizens. But the 
glory of your virtues will not terminate with your military 
command ; it will continue to animate remotest ages." 

Having deposed the burden of care, Washington retired 
to Mount Vernon, which, except on hurried occasions, he 
had not visited for eight years and a half. He had become, 
to use his own words, " a private citizen on the banks of 
the Potomac, under the shadow of his own vine and his 
own fig-tree, free from the bustle of a camp and the busy 
scenes of public life." Yet it was long " ere he could get the 
better of his usual custom of ruminating, as soon as he 
waked in the morning, on the business of the ensuing day, 
and of his surprise at finding, after revolving many things 
in his mind, that he was no longer a public man, nor had 
anything to do with pul^lic transactions." 
19 



156 GEORGE WASHINGTON. 

When the independence of America had been achieved, 
the necessity of a stable and energetic government was 
immediately recognised by all the leading patriots. Con- 
gress, under the articles of confederation, did not possess 
sufficient authority to bind the states together, and adopt 
measures to meet the wants of the period. Attempts to 
levy federal taxes were resisted in Massachusetts, and the 
rebels, under Shay, were not subdued without considerable 
expense and trouble. At length a general convention to 
frame a constitution was proposed by Virginia, and agreed 
to by the other states. 

On the 25th of May, 1787, delegates from the thirteen 
states assembled in Philadelphia. Washington was chosen 
to preside over the deliberations, and among- the members 
were Hamilton, Madison, Sherman, Franklin, and many 
other able and celebrated men. After long debates, the 
beautiful constitution which still binds the states together, 
was framed, and sent to the several states for ratification. 

The constitution met with violent opposition from the 
"■ State-rights" party, headed by Patrick Henry and Samuel 
Adams ; but was at length ratified by all the states. Then 
came the choice of a president and a vice-president of the 
United States. All eyes were, of course, turned to the 
country's hero — Washington. Electors were chosen on the 
7th of January, 1789. When their votes were counted, 
they were found unanimous for George Washington, and 
John Adams, of Massachusetts, received a majority for vice- 
president. 

The journey of the president elect from Mount Vernon 
to New York was a continued ovation. On the oOtli of 
April, he was formally installed in office. The ceremonial 
was in the highest degree impressive and befitting the occa- 
sion. Chancellor Livingston administered the oath of office 
to Washington, and then proclaimed him president, the peo- 
ple responding with joyous shouts. The new president then 



GEORGE WASHINGTON". 157 

delivered a short inaugural address, expressing his determi- 
nation to use all his abilities to justify the touching proof 
of the confidence of his fellow-citizens. He renounced all 
claims for compensation during his continuance in office, 
except for such actual expenditure as the public good might 
be thought to require. The vice-president took the oath 
of office upon the same day. 

Congress assembled soon after the inauguration of Wash- 
ington, the gallant old " Continental Congress," disappear- 
ing, people scarcely knew how. Now began the work of 
organizing and putting in operation the machinery of 
government. The creation of the departments belonged 
to Congress. In the mean time, John Jay held the office of 
foreign secretary, General Knox that of secretary of war, 
and the treasury was in the hands of a board of commis- 
sioners. At length the departments were created and the 
cabinet officers appointed. Thomas Jefferson, author of 
the Declaration of Independence, was appointed secretary 
of state ; Alexander Hamilton, then but thirty-three years 
of age, but distinguished for splendid abilities and great 
public services, was appointed to the arduous post of secre- 
tary of the treasury ; General Knox was retained as 
secretary of war ; Edmund Randolph was appointed 
attorney-general, and Mr. Osgood, postmaster-general. 
The Supreme Court was organized by the appointment 
of John Jay as chief justice, and a number of distin- 
guished lawyers as associates. 

The government immediately applied itself to providing 
for the wants of the country. Hamilton devised various 
schemes for raising revenue and regulating financial aff;iirs. 
Among these were a tariff" and a national bank. These 
measures excited a violent opposition. Parties were organ- 
ized under the lead of Hamilton and Jefferson, and, in Con- 
gress, the debates were characterized by much acrimony. 
Jefferson considered a natioiial bank to be unconstitutional j 



158 GEORGE WASHINGTON. 

but after much deliberation, Washington sanctioned this 
measure of Hamilton, The assumption of the debts con- 
tracted by the states during the war of independence, also 
excited violent opposition ; but the scheme was adopted. 
Hamilton thus triumphed over all opposition ; and there 
cannot be a doubt, that his measures raised the credit 
of the government, and secured confidence in its ability 
and integrity. During the exciting discussions between the 
Hamiltonian Federalists and the JefFersonian Democrats, 
Washington preserved an even balance in the executive, 
and strove to reconcile all interests. The task was difficult, 
and no man but Washington could have performed it as 
well. 

The establishment of the revenue system, the admission 
of Vermont into the Union, the increase of the army to 
resist the Indians, and the selection of the site of the 
Federal city of Washington, were the principal features in 
the labours of the 1st Congress. 

On the 25th of October, 1791, the president opened the 
first session of the 2d Congress by an official speech con- 
gratulating the members of both houses upon the pros- 
perity of the country, detailing the disastrous defeats of 
Generals Harmer and St. Clair by the Indians of the north- 
west territory, and recommending such meastires as he 
deemed necessary for the exigencies of the time. During 
the session party spirit ran high, but the Federalists main- 
tained their ascendancy. This Congress adjourned on the 
8th of May, 1792. 

Jefferson and Hamilton differed on almost every point of 
foreign or domestic politics. The quiet of Washington 
was disturbed in vain endeavours to preserve peace be- 
tween the two discordant leaders of his administration. 
The ambiguous kind of connexion that existed both with 
Great Britain and France was a continual source of bicker- 
ing between them. There were now agents from both 



GEORGE WASHINGTOlSr. 159 

countries in America; and whilst Hamilton pressed over- 
tures and ftivourable terms to be oftered to England, Jef- 
ferson pressed the same for France. The antipathy of 
the former to France was increased by the late events 
of that country, where the king had been dethroned, and 
almost every principle of government uprooted. Some 
considered that in this state of things there did not exist 
in France a government sufficiently legal, or responsible, to 
warrant the payment of money from America. The in- 
surrection in St. Domingo came, to render this question at 
once more important and intricate, as the menaced colonists 
had, in the first instance, recourse to the assistance of the 
United States. 

The limits between the two departments were not well 
defined ; and the secretary of state complained that he of 
the treasury drew all influence and affairs within his own 
jurisdiction. Each minister had a journal, which supported 
him, and was considered the organ of his opinions. The 
Ga^/ette of the United States spoke in the Federal tone of 
the treasury ; the National Gazette, edited by a clerk of Jeffer- 
son's office, espoused contrary opinions ; and thus were two 
members of the same cabinet engaged in a paper war before 
the public. In the journal of one, European politics were 
represented through the medium of the English papers, 
which over-coloured the extravagant acts of France, and 
showed anarchy and blood as the necessary consequences 
of democracy ; the columns of the other were filled rather 
from French and Continental papers, which then represented 
republicanism as thriving equally in France as in America. 
The president, however, from inclination, leaning to Hamil- 
ton's view of things, still would fiing himself into the arms 
of neither party ; and laboured with all the energy of true 
patriotism to allay, if not extinguish, these sources of dis- 
sension. Yet even Washington himself was not spared. 
His appointed days and hours for reception — rendered re- 



160 GEORGE WASHINGTON. 

quisite for the economy of his time — were called levees, and 
considered an affectation of monarchy. Some arrangements 
of etiquette, into which he had been betrayed whilst at 
New York, were adduced as proofs of similar inclination on 
his part. The vice-president, Adams, was stigmatized as 
still more monarchical in his principles and in his life. 

There was now an opportunity for the discontented 
party to try its force, as the four years' duration of the 
presidential and vice-presidential office was about to expire. 
Against Washington, however, although the malignant 
might carp, there were none so bold as to propose a com- 
petitor : the difficulty, indeed, was to persuade that veteran 
still to undertake the fatigue of the first office. Year after 
year he had contemplated retiring, and year after year 
fresh diflBculties and troubles demanded of his patriotism the 
sacrifice of his inclination to repose. At present Jefferson 
threatened to retire the moment that Washington did ; the 
effect of which, by flinging the government into the hands 
of the Federals exclusively, would be to excite the rage and 
suspicions of the opposite faction to the utmost, and thus 
risk some such convulsion as that which was distracting 
France, and marring all her aims at freedom. Washington, 
therefore, consented to occupy the president's chair for 
another term of four years, commencing March, 1793. 

The same deference was not paid to Adams. Him the 
opposition bent all their efforts to displace; and George 
Clinton was set up as his competitor for the vice-presidency. 
Could Jefferson have stood, his popularity would, no doubt, 
have prevailed. But Adams was preferred to Clinton by a 
majority of votes. 

The chief attacks, however, were made upon the secretary 
of the treasury. In the discussion of the supplies, it was 
endeavoured to implicate him as incorrect in the manage- 
ment of the public money. The treasury accounts were 
somewhat intricate, owing to debts due and payments 



GEORGE WASHINGTON". 161 

made to France, at the same time that loans were raised in 
Europe. France wished some of this debt to be transmitted 
to St. Domingo, in aid of her colonists. This crossing of 
funds and payments had produced confusion ; and Hamil- 
ton was accused not only of this, but of an actual deficit in 
his accounts, — a charge which he successfully and indig- 
nantly repelled. The resolutions against him were nega- 
tived; but a strong minority showed their rancour, by 
voting what was nothing less than an impeachment. 

Washington accepted the presidency at a moment when 
the country was about to stand most in need of his impar- 
tial honesty and firmness. The French revolution had 
just reached its highest point of fanaticism and disorder, 
and the general war which it occasioned in Europe put it 
beyond the power of the president of the United States to 
remain indifferent or a stranger to its progress. The 
French republic was about to appoint a new envoy to the 
United States ; and questions arose, as to whether he should 
be received, or whether the treaty concluded with the 
monarch of France, stipulating a defensive alliance in case* 
of an attack upon the part of England, was now binding 
upon America. 

These and other questions arising out of them, being 
submitted by the president to the several members of his 
cabinet, gave rise on some points to striking differences of 
opinion. Hamilton and Knox were for declaring the treaty 
void, and for openly condemning and breaking with the 
democratic government of France, by refusing to receive 
her envoy, or at least by rendering that reception cold. 
On the other hand, Jefferson and Randolph (the attorney- 
general) upheld, that any alteration which France had 
chosen to make in her internal state, concerned America in 
no manner to criticise or interfere with. They agreed, 
however, that for the sake of preserving neutrality, a 
proclamation should be issued, forbidding the citizens of 



162 GEORGE WASHINGTON". 

the United States from equipping any vessel for the purpose 
of cruising hostilelj to either power. The president 
resolved to receive the envoy, and it was agreed, that no 
mention should be made of the treaty, or of its havmg been 
taken into consideration. 

The appearance of the proclamation above mentioned 
gave a fresh subject and spur to the party feeling predomi- 
nant in the public mind. Indifference to the French 
question could scarcely be met with. The very question 
was one calculated to render such indifference impossible. 
Every man was compelled to express an opinion, and to 
side either with England or France, with monarchical or 
democratic institutions. The great mass of the American 
population naturally enough preferred France and demo- 
cracy ; and by them the proclamation against bearing aid 
to these, was viewed and reproached as a political heresy. 
The aspersions against Washington himself became of a 
more violent and personal nature, and sometimes served to 
disturb his equanimity. 

' The choice which the French government made of a 
person to represent them in America, as well as the in- 
structions which they gave him, tended very much to in- 
crease these difficulties. The individual was M. Genet, a 
man who had held some subordinate office, whose ignorance 
of the nature and duties of the office in which he was placed 
increased his natural arrogance. But the very instructions 
which he brought out from his government were such as to 
disgust liberal minds. They contained an attack upon the 
regal government of France ; and not only insinuated, but 
proved, that the minister of Louis XVI., in furthering the 
independence of America, had been a foe to her aggrandize- 
ment. And this was put forward as a plea, that the United 
States should rejoice in the revolution which had taken 
place, and which brought them a sincere and cordial ally, 
instead of a false and lukewarm one. However true the 



GEORGE WASHINGTON. 163 

circumstance, it was indelicate so to make use of it, and 
impolitic, as diminishing the sum of gratitude due from 
America to France. 

M. Genet's own conduct, however, was marked with 
insolence and audacity, which exceeded the patience of the 
American government. Instead of sailing to Philadelphia, 
and communicating immediately with the president or 
ministers, he landed at Charleston in South Carolina, and 
there remained six weeks superintending and authorizing 
the fitting out of cruisers to intercept British vessels. The 
enthusiasm with which he was welcomed by the people, 
both at Charleston and during his land journey to Philadel- 
phia, induced citizen Genet to believe that the envoy of 
France must be as powerful as its name was revered. He 
deemed, that, relying on the popular support, he might act 
the proconsul in the country, and set himself above the 
cautious scruples of the existing government. Accordingly, 
when expostulated with upon his licensing of privateers, 
and upon the circumstance of captures made by his country- 
men in the very rivers of the United States, Genet replied, 
that the treaty between France and the United States 
sanctioned such measures, and that any obstructions put 
upon them would not only be infractions of the treaty, but 
treason against the riglits of man. The government, not- 
withstanding this protest, thought fit to arrest two indivi- 
duals who had entered on this privateering service. Genet 
demanded their release in a menacing style, little in accord- 
ance with the character of envoy from an allied power ; and 
he was supported, unfortunately, in this high tone, by the 
democratic party, who gave him fetes, at which red caps of 
liberty appeared and circulated, and in which toasts were 
given, as flattering to the French republican as vituperative 
of the American government. Nor were these meetings 
confined to occasions of conviviality. Societies were formed 
on the model of the Jacobins at Paris, and a club was con- 
20 



164 GEORGE WASHINGTON. 

stituted at Philadelphia for the same purpose as in Paris, 
to overrule both the legislature and the cabinet. 

In a particular instance, M. Genet was enabled to show 
his contempt at once for the authorities of the country and 
for his own word. A captured British ship was fitted out 
in the very harbour of Philadelphia as a privateer against 
the English. It was ready to sail, when informa-tion of the 
fact reached the secretary. Washington was then at his 
country seat, and Genet after much blustering was brought 
to promise, that the vessel in question should not sail till 
the president's return. The word was given and broken : 
for the cruiser did sail upon its quest. Whilst the govern- 
ment was consulting its law officers, to decide how best they 
might deal with the French envoy, and his pretensions, the 
latter obtained cause of complaint in his turn, and urged 
that the British were in the habit of taking French property 
out of American vessels, contrary to the principles of neu- 
trality avowed by the rest of Europe. Jefferson himself 
was obliged to tell M. Genet, on this occasion, that the 
British were right. But the latter would yield to neither 
authority nor reason; he replied in the most insulting tone, 
and would appeal, he said, from the president to the people. 
His appeal was in part answered; for one of those who 
were tried at Charleston for taking part in foreign priva- 
teering, was acquitted by the jury. The government, how- 
ever, persisted in preserving and guarding its neutrality ; 
and orders were issued against permitting privateers in the 
ports, for preventing captures within the American waters, 
and for restoring captures so made. As to Genet himself, 
his recall was demanded ; a knowledge of which brought 
forth from him fresh insults both in word and act. A 
reclaimed prize, which had been taken possession of by the 
legal officers, was forcibly rescued from them, and kept, till 
it sailed, by the original French captors. 

Neutrality between belligerents is a difficult and delicate 



GEORGE washingto:n-. 165 

part to sustain. It was not France alone that advanced 
extraordinary pretensions. The British government issued 
orders for stopping all neutral ships laden with provisions 
bound for the ports of France ; thus declaring that country 
in a state of blockade. The national convention of France 
had, indeed, set the example of this by an act of the same 
tendency, doubly rash, because impotent. But this, how- 
ever strong a plea for retaliating upon France, was none for 
making America suffer. Corn, indeed, formed the chief ex- 
port of the United States; and to prohibit them from ship- 
ping it at all — for the new regulation amounted in fact to 
this — was a grievance which the most pacific neutral could 
scarcely submit to. Another continually recurring source 
of complaint on the part of the United States against Eng- 
land, was the pressing of their seamen. These causes came 
to swell the tide of faction in America, as the enemies of 
England and of authoritative institutions took advantage 
of them to raise their cry, whilst the Anti-gallican, on the 
other hand, were as indignant against the arrogance of the 
French and of their envoy. 

Congress reassembled in the month of December, 1793, 
and the president enumerated all these topics in his speech ; 
the conduct of France and England ; and the difficulty, as 
well as the necessity, of maintaining a firm neutrality. To 
be able to preserve the latter, he recommended an increase 
of funds and force. The late recess had been as stormy in 
the cabinet as amongst the people. Genet's conduct, the 
democratic societies, the uncertainty of relation with Great 
Britain and with France, had been a continual source of 
discord. Mr. Jefferson, in pronouncing against Genet, had 
found himself in the disagreeable position of one striking 
against his own party. He entertained the strongest sus- 
picions of his colleague Hamilton, and he not only combated 
his sentiments, but counteracted his policy. The former 
had been for expelling Genet from the country, and for 



166 GEORGE WASHINGTON. 

other strong measures, which the secretary of state opposed : 
Washington held the balance even ; but thought it unfair 
that Jefferson should support his clerk, Freneau, in editing 
a paper that reviled not only the measures of government, 
but the person of the president. The secretary of state 
was determined to retire. Previous to his retreat, he drew 
up an elaborate report upon the commerce of the United 
States, and upon the privileges and restrictions attending 
mercantile intercourse with foreign nations. In this he 
embodied his favourite views — a leaning to France, and an 
aversion to England; bequeathing them, as he retired, to the 
country's consideration, if not adoption. Randolph suc- 
ceeded Jefferson as secretary of state. 

The attention of Congress was first called to the report 
of Jefferson, and to the measures which it manifestly re- 
commended. The principal of these was a tonnage duty 
upon British vessels, from which French vessels were ex- 
empt. The object was evidently more political than com- 
mercial, in which point of view it had oft been argued be- 
fore. Politically considered, public opinion had grown in 
favour of France, in spite of Genet's folly. Two circum- 
stances had occurred to produce this, in addition to the 
national tendency of republicans to favour a republic. One 
of these was the removal of the Portuguese cruisers from 
before the straits of Gibraltar. This — said to be owing to 
the interference of England — had opened a passage into the 
Atlantic for the Algerine corsairs, and had proved destruc- 
tive to American commerce. The other was the aggression 
of the Indians, said to be instigated by Canadian governors. 

For the moment, the Federal and Democratic parties 
might have been designated more properly as Anglicans and 
Galileans ; so much was a leaning to one or other of these 
countries, disputing for ascendancy in Europe, the essential 
characteristic of even American politics. 

The spirit of the country and Congress was evidently 



GEORGE WASHINGTON. 167 

warlike. The government thought to take advantage of 
it in a particular point, which might serve also somewhat 
to distract the people from the one dire idea of hatred to 
England. It was proposed to equip a fleet of six frigates 
to cruise against the Algerines. But this was opposed. 
The opposition looked to but one enemy, viz.. Great Britain, 
and she was too powerful to be encountered at sea. 

Under the influence of this general feeling, Congress pro- 
ceeded to consider the raising of a military force, the forti- 
fying the ports, and laying on an embargo. Mr. Madison 
proposed to break off" all commercial intercourse with 
England, and to sequester her debts. But the obnoxious 
order of the admiralty was recalled, and the Federal party 
were able to rally, and entertain hopes of avoiding a rup- 
ture. 

To put an end to the menacing difierence with England, 
was considered the first requisite step by the government, 
and the last concession of the admiralty was considered to 
warrant the despatch of an envoy extraordinary to London. 
Jay was appointed, a majority in the Senate being induced 
to agree in the nomination. This was a bold act in the teeth 
of a majority of the House of Representatives. However, 
that majority was reduced, or, at least, neutralized for the 
moment, the house dividing so equally upon most questions, 
as to leave the decision to the casting vote of the vice- 
president. 

The violent democratic and warlike tendency of the 
legislature having been at least turned aside, the only 
difficult task which remained to the president was to allay 
a similar feeling, with much more menacing demonstrations 
of it, on the part of the people. The western states dis- 
played a spirit of utter insubordination. Kentucky resolved 
not only to have the right of navigating the Mississippi, 
but prepared to wrest it by violence from Spain. The 
more remote parts of Pennsylvania were distracted by 



1G8 GEORGE WASHINGTON. 

another cause — resistance to the excise. This resistance 
soon assumed an organized form, and its leaders placed 
themselves in communication with the democratic societies 
of the great towns eastward, until, heated by this stimulus, 
they at last placed all law and legal order at defiance. A 
proclamation was at first issued, but proved of no avail ; 
when the Federal members of the cabinet urged the necessity 
of assembling the militia of the neighbouring states, and 
marching them to crush the insurrectionary force of Penn- 
sylvania. This, too, was a bold step, much disputed and 
decried. But it completely succeeded. A militia force, 
under the command of Governor Lee, and accompanied by 
Secretary Hamilton, marched across the Alleghany Moun- 
tains ; and such was their imposing number, that the insur- 
gents shrunk from a contest with their armed brethren, 
and dispersed without offering any resistance. The result 
was most important, and, as producing it, the insurrection 
itself proved beneficial, since it showed to the lover of 
anarchy, that there did exist a force in the country, ready 
to put down any anti-constitutional attempt. 

General Wayne, at the head of a regular force, had been 
about the same time successful beyond the Ohio, where he 
defeated the Indians in an action of some importance. Such 
were the tidings that the president had to communicate 
to Congress, when it met, towards the close of 1794. He 
recommended them to complete the militia law, now that 
the salutary use of that force had been seen : and he alluded 
to the democratic societies, as sources of trouble that ought 
not to be permitted to exist. The House of Representatives 
could not bring itself to pass formal condemnation, as the 
president seemed to wish, upon the clubs. But the news of 
their fall in Paris, and of that of Robespierre, proved con- 
demnation sufficient. 

In this session of Congress the secretary of the treasury, 
Alexander Hamilton, sent in his resignation. He closed 



GEORGE WASHINGTON. 169 

his mini.sterial career, as Jefferson had done, by a report 
upon the finances of the country, containing the develop- 
ment and completion of his system. No statesman had 
wielded such influence over the infant government of the 
United States as Hamilton had done ; and he might almost 
be considered as the parent of their constitution. He was 
the opponent, however, of the democratic regime; and 
as such, the obloquy attached to him was so great, that 
his talents and fortitude must both have been extreme to 
have enabled him to bear up against its weight. 

General Knox at the same time retired from the war 
department. The two secretaries were succeeded by Mr. 
Wolcott and Colonel Pickering. Washington was thus left 
almost alone to resist the growing strength of the Anti-Federal 
and Gallican party, and precisely at a moment when a ques- 
tion occurred likely to exasperate it and call forth all its vio- 
lence. Mr. Jay, who had been sent envoy to England, had 
concluded a treaty with Lord Grenville, the minister of 
that country. If his mere mission had been deprecated, 
how was its completion to be greeted, especially as an agree- 
ment could certainly not have been come to with Great 
Britain without making some sacrifices. The hackneyed 
reproach, however, had been got over, — that England 
scorned to enter into any treaty whatsoever, — and the 
present accommodation seemed to have been conducted on 
equitable terms. England stipulated to evacuate the posts 
occupied, by her hitherto within the boundary line of the 
United States ; they, on the other hand, allowing British 
subjects every facility for the recovery of past debts In- 
demnification was promised on both sides for illegal captures. 
Freedom of trade was agreed on to a certain extent. Ameri- 
cans were allowed to trade with the West Indies in vessels 
under twenty tons, provided they carried their produce to 
their own ports only, and exported no such produce to 
Europe. This last part of the stipulation was certainly hard, 



170 GEORGE WASHINGTON. 

as it prohibited the American from sending to Europe the 
cotton or sugar of his own production. This had escaped 
Mr. Jay, and the president refused to ratify the treaty till 
this mistake was rectified. The other grievance of the 
treaty was the right of England, still allowed, to take out 
of American ships contraband articles, and to be in some 
measure the judge of what was contraband. This, which 
the government under Jefferson had loudly complained of, 
was now in part abandoned, and formed certainly a just 
ground of cavil against the treaty. However, these ob- 
jections were counterbalanced by so many advantages, 
that the president, after some further delay, ratified the 
treaty, procuring a majority of the Senate to concur with 
him. 

Never had there been a more violent expression of opi- 
nion in America, than that which now assailed Washington 
and his treaty — for his it was considered. Nothing was to 
be heard but discussions concerning it ; and public meetings 
were called in every town, at which addresses and resolu- 
tions were drawn up against it. The Gallican party ex- 
claimed against it as the basest act of ingratitude towards 
France, and of treason towards a republic, whose watchword 
and safeguard ought to be hatred to monarchy and to Eng- 
land. The grave dignity of Washington, however, contemn- 
ing his revilers, rebuked with effect such violent addresses 
as were offered to him; and his firmness caused public 
opinion to rally, if not to turn in his favour. Hamilton 
left his retirement to defend the measures ; and although 
the people refused to listen to him in public, he advocated 
it with the pen, in writings that staggered opposition, and 
actually stemmed the popular torrent. These exertions of 
the Federalists enabled the president to stand his ground 
and support the treaty. 

In the midst of this, Mr. Randolph was obliged to resign 
his place as secretary of state. In his anxiety to support 



GEORGE WASHINGTON. 171 

the views and party of Jefferson, he had not conducted 
himself with the prudence that became his station. A let- 
ter of his, or rather a conversation of his with the French 
minister, and transmitted by him to the French government, 
w^as intercepted by the British, and laid before the president. 
It showed that not only the views of Mr, Randolph were at 
variance with the executive, but his measures to support 
these views, — making use of the money of the state, — not 
creditable. They were strongly at variance with that hor- 
ror of corruption evinced by the Anti-Federalists in their 
abuse of Hamilton. But Mr. Randolph had pleased neither 
party ; and in seeking to steer between them, sunk for the 
time. 

Ere the president again met Congress, his envoys had 
almost concluded treaties with Spain, with Algiers, and 
with the Indians beyond the Ohio. Spain yielded the right 
to navigate the Mississippi, with a depot at New Orleans. 
So that these, united with the British treaty, formed a com- 
plete pacific system, which Washington aimed at establish- 
ing, ere he retired from the executive, as the last bequest 
to his country. 

The Anti-British party were still violent, still strong. 
The arrival of a new French envoy gave rise, by the ex- 
travagant addresses which he made, to a fresh access of 
enthusiasm in favour of that country. The president kept 
unswervingly in his path, although now unsupported by 
any eminent man as minister. He proclaimed the treaty 
with Great Britain. Although this right was secured to him, 
conjointly with the Senate, by the constitution, the House 
of Representatives still complained that they had not been 
consulted ; and they passed a vote, demanding of the pre- 
sident the communication of the papers and correspondence 
relative to the treaty. This he firmly refused to comply 
with, on constitutional grounds, and as a pernicious pre- 
cedent; stating his reasons at considerable length. But the 
21 



172 GEORGE WASHINGTON. 

lower house did not want pretexts for discussing the treaty, 
and advocating their right to interfere with it. Strong de- 
bates ensued. But the great body of the people had too 
much respect for the founder of their liberties to support a 
factious and personal opposition to him. 

France remained the only country dissatisfied with the 
conduct of the United States. She thought herself entitled 
to more than common amity ; in fact, to the gratitude and 
cordial support of a sister republic. The treaty, therefore, 
between America and Great Britain, had excited the resent- 
ment of the Directory, and, indeed, those articles of it, 
which allowed the latter country the right of taking French 
goods from neutral ships, were calculated to excite just com- 
plaint. The Directory, however, was not content with ad- 
dressing the legitimate language of remonstrance to the 
cabinet of Washington. They directed their envoy to 
address Congress ; to appeal from the president to the people, 
as Genet had done; and so attempt to force the govern- 
ment of that country into a closer alliance with France. 
These circumstances were somewhat aggravated by Monroe's 
acting as American envoy in Paris. This gentleman was 
an Anti-Federalist. He was recalled, and Pinckney ap- 
pointed in his place. 

Washington, however, was not able to bring this nego- 
tiation, as he had done others, to a term. The period of 
his second tenure of the presidential office was about to ex- 
pire, and no consideration could tempt him to admit his re- 
election. Independent of his age and fatigues, popular 
clamour had passed, of late, all bounds in its vituperation. 
He had been assailed, he said, in terms " such as could 
scarcely be applied to a Nero, to a notorious defaulter, or 
even to a common pickpocket." He had been accused of 
receiving more than his due of the public money. False 
correspondence was got up, and attributed to him ; and the 
secret papers of government disclosed and made public to 



GEORGE WASHINGTON. 173 

his prejudice. But these annoyances were but inducements 
to make him wish retirement : his reasons were more 
serious, and the principal of these was, that one person had 
ruled a sufficient time for a free republic. His intention of 
retiring from the presidency, Washington announced to the 
people of the United States, in a valedictory address, which, 
for eloquence and force, and for sound principles on govern- 
ment, must be reckoned as one of the classic records of po- 
litical wisdom. From this time Washington may be said 
to have virtually ceased to govern. Public attention was 
absorbed in the choice of his successor ; and although this 
was not decided until the year 1797, Washington's pohtical 
career may be considered as closed some time before. De- 
spite the late frowarduess, the legislature were unanimous 
in the tribute of gratitude and veneration which answered 
the president's announcement that he addressed them for 
the last time. In the month of February, 1797, he wit- 
nessed the ceremony of his successor's instalment, and soon 
after retired to his property at Mount Vernon. 

The Father of his Country now passed his time like 
another Cincinnatus, superintending the cultivation of his 
estates, and enjoying the society of esteemed friends. His 
quiet was undisturbed until the beginning of 1799, when 
war was declared against France. President Adams at 
once appointed him commander-in-chief, and he accepted 
the office upon condition that Hamilton and Pinckney 
should be his principal officers. He proposed to take the 
field ; but the difficulty was settled in a short time without 
any hostile operations upon land. The great commander- 
in-chief, however, did not live to know that a treaty of 
peace had been concluded. 

" On Friday, the 13th of December," says Chief Justice 
Marshall, " while attending to some improvements on his 
estate, he was exposed to a light rain, by which his neck 
and hair became wet. Not apprehending danger from this 



174 



GEOEGE WASHINGTON. 



circumstance, he passed the afternoon in the usual manner ; 
but in the night was seized with an inflammatory affection 
of the windpipe. The disease commenced with a violent 
ague, accompanied with some pain in the upper and fore 
part of the throat, a sense of stricture in the same part, a 
cough, and a difficult deglutition, which were soon succeeded 
by fever, and a quick and laborious respiration. 

" Twelve or fourteen ounces of blood were taken from his 
arm, but he would not permit a messenger to be despatched 
for his family physician until the appearance of day. About 
eleven in the morning, Doctor Craik arrived ; and, perceiv- 
ing the extreme danger of the case, requested that two con- 
sulting physicians should be immediately sent for. The 
utmost exertions of medical skill were a^Dplied in vain. The 
powers of life were manifestly yielding to the force of the 
disorder ; speaking became almost impracticable, respiration 
became more and more contracted and imperfect, until half- 
past eleven on Saturday night, when, retaining the full 
possession of his intellect, he expired without a struggle." 




iijT "? V 







JOHN ADAMS. 



Justice has scarcely been rendered to the memory of the 
second president of the United States. Without the steady 
prudence of Washington and FrankUn, or the original 
genius of Jefferson, he possessed more of that mighty 
enthusiasm which filled the breast of Luther, than either 
of those revolutionary leaders. The independence of his 
country was the aim of his life. When the tyrannical 
measures of Britain were first adopted, he, almost alone, 
was for independence. He was the colossus who carried 
through that bold Declaration, and he sunk into the arms 
of death with " Independence for ever" upon his lips. His 
career is worthy of more study than it has yet received. 

John Adams was born at Braintree, Massachusetts, Octo- 
ber 19, 1735. His ancestors were among the first settlers 
of Massachusetts, Henry Adams, the great-great-grand- 
father of John, being one of the original proprietors of the 
town of Braintree. Their condition was that of substantial 
yeomen, who possessed the fee simple of their lands, and 
maintained themselves and their families by manual labour. 
Mr. Adams having, while yet a boy, evinced great fondness 
for books and readiness in learning, his father determined 
to give him a collegiate education, and, accordingly, placed 
him under the care of Mr. Marsh (who was afterwards the 
preceptor of the celebrated Josiah Quincy), that he might 
be prepared for entrance into the university of Cambridge. 

(177) 



178 JOHN ADAMS. 

He remained in that institution until the year 1755, when 
he received his bachelor's degree, and in 1758 that of mas- 
ter of arts. Whilst at college, he is said to have been dis- 
tinguished by intense application, retentiveness of memory, 
acuteness of reasoning, boldness and originality of thought, 
strength of language, and an honesty of character which 
could neither assume nor tolerate disguise. After he had 
left college, he commenced the study of law at Worcester, 
with Colonel James Putnam, and, during the period he 
was so engaged, instructed pupils in the Latin and Greek 
languages, in order to be able to defray his expenses him- 
self. 

Before proceeding farther, it may not be amiss to notice 
the posture of affairs in Massachusetts at that epoch. For 
a long time previous, that province had been disturbed by 
almost unremitting contentions between its inhabitants and 
the Parliament of Great Britian, on various important sub- 
jects. Parliament becoming jealous of the power, approach- 
ing to independence, which they enjoyed, imposed uncon- 
stitutional restraints upon their commerce, violated their 
charters, and, in short, treated them so arbitrarily, that 
their spirit was completely roused, and a vigorous resistance 
called forth. Massachusetts, especially, had become a 
theatre of perpetual struggle for power on the one side, and 
for freedom on the other. But it was hitherto only an in- 
tellectual warfare, no idea of separation from the mother 
country having ever been entertained. 

In 1758, Mr. Adams left the office of Colonel Putnam, 
and entered that of Jeremiah Gridley, then attorney-gene- 
ral of the province, and of the highest eminence at the bar. 
Gridley had, some years previously, superintended also the 
legal studies of James Otis, and, proud of his two pupils, 
used often to say, that " he had raised two young eagles, 
who were, one day or other, to pick out his eyes." In 
1759, Mr. Adams was admitted, at his recommendation, a 



JOHN ADAMS. ' 179 

member of the bar of Suffolk. Mr. Adams commenced the 
j)ractice of his profession in that part of his native town 
now called Quincy, but first brought himself into notice by 
his defence of a prisoner in the county of Plymouth, from 
which time a sufficiency of' lucrative business occupied his 
attention. In 1761, he was admitted to the degree of 
barrister at law, and shortly afterwards was placed in the 
possession of a small landed estate by his father's decease. 
In February of this year, an incident .occurred, which in- 
flamed his enthusiasm in the cause of his country's rights. 

The British cabinet had long shown a desire to assert the 
sovereign authority of Parliament over the colonies in all 
cases of taxation and internal policy ; but the first evidence 
of its having determined to do so, was an order in council, 
issued this year, enjoining the officers of the customs in 
Massachusetts Bay to execute \.h.Q acts of trade, and make 
application for writs of assistance to the supreme judicature 
of the province. These writs were a species of general 
search-warrant, authorizing those who were empowered to 
carry them into effect, to enter all houses, warehouses, &c., 
for the purpose of discovering and seizing such goods as 
were not discharged from the taxes imposed upon them by 
the acts. The officers of the customs applied for them, in 
pursuance of their instructions, to the court of Salem, but 
the demand was refused, on account of doubts concerning 
their constitutionality. It was then determined to have 
the affair argued by counsel in Boston. 

Great alarm now pervaded the whole community. Mr. 
Otis was engaged by the merchants of Salem and Boston, 
to oppose the concession of so formidable an instrument of 
arbitrary power. In order to do so with entire freedom, he 
resigned the lucrative station of advocate-general in the court 
of admiralty, which he then enjoyed. Of the masterly 
manner in which he performed his duty, Mr. Adams, who 
was present at the discussion, has transmitted a vivid ac- 



180 JOHN ADAMS. 

count. " Otis," says he, " was a flame of fire ! With a 
promptitude of classical allusion, a depth of research, a 
rapid summary of historical events and dates, a profusion 
of legal authorities, and a prophetic glance of his eyes into 
futurity, he hurried away all before him. American Inde- 
pendence xoas then and there horn." He afterwards adds : 
'^ every man of an immensely crowded audience appeared 
to me to go away, as I did, ready to take arms against writs 
of assistance." Speaking of this discourse on another occa- 
sion, he said, " that James Otis then and there first breathed 
into this nation the breath of life." 

In 1764 he married Abigail Smith, second daughter of 
the Rev. William Smith, of Weymouth, and granddaughter 
of Colonel Quincy, of Mount Wollaston, a lady every way 
worthy of her husband, endowed by nature with a counte- 
nance singularly noble and lovely, and with a mind whose 
fine powers were improved by an excellent education. Her 
ardour in the cause of her country was as elevated as his 
own, and her piety unaffected and exemplary. About a 
year afterwards, Mr. Adams published in the Boston Ga- 
zette " An Essay on Canon and Feudal law," which was 
reprinted in London, in 1768, and called "A Dissertation 
on Canon and Feudal Law." It is perhaps, not the smallest 
proof of his merit, that it was there attributed to Gridley, 
who at that time enjoyed the highest reputation for ability. 
The friends of the colonies in England pronounced it "one 
of the very best productions ever seen from North Ame- 
rica." The name of the real author was afterwards di- 
vulged, in 1783, when it was published in Philadelphia, by 
Robert Bell, in a pamphlet form, with Lord Sheffield's ob- 
servations on the commerce of the American States, and 
entitled " An Essay on Canon and Feudal Law, by John 
Adams, Esq." It seems to have been the principal ob- 
ject of the author to extinguish, as far as possible, the 
blind and almost superstitious veneration of his country- 



JOHN ADAMS. 181 

men, for the institutions of the parent country, by holding 
up to their abhorrence the principles of the canon and 
feudal law, and showing to them the conspiracy which 
existed between church and state, for the purj^ose of op- 
pressing the people. He inculcates the sentiments of 
genuine hberty, as well as the necessity of correct informa- 
tion on the part of his fellow-citizens, in order that they 
might be prepared to assert and maintain their rights by 
force, if force should ever become necessary. 

In December, 1765, Mr. Adams was engaged as counsel 
with Mr. Gridley and Mr. Otis, to support, before the 
governor and council, a memorial presented to the former, 
from the town of Boston, praying that the courts, which 
had been closed on account of the opposition to the stamp 
act, might again be opened. Through their united exer- 
tions, the petition was successful. In the same year he 
removed to Boston, where he continued the practice of his 
profession on a very extensive scale. After he had resided 
there about two years, the crown officers of the province, 
thinking, perhaps, that his patriotism was not without its 
price, made him an offer, through Mr. Sewall (between 
whom and himself an intimate friendship existed, formed 
at the time when he was studying with Colonel Putnam), 
of the office of advocate-general in the office of the admi- 
ralty, the most lucrative post in the gift of the governor. 
This office was also one which conducted "its incumbents 
directly to the highest provincial honours. He refused it, 
however, as he says in his preface tg the late edition of 
Novanglus, " decidedly and peremptorily, though respect- 
fully." In 1769 he was appointed chairman of the com- 
mittee, chosen by the town of Boston, for the purpose of 
drawing up instructions to their representatives, to resist 
the encroachments of the British government. His col- 
leagues were R. Dana and Jos. Warren. At the time they 
were thus employed, the metropolis was invested by an 
22 



182 JOHN ADAMS. 

armed force, both by sea and land, and the statebouse sur- 
rounded by a military guard, with cannon pointed at the 
door. Large majorities of both houses of parliament had 
signified their approval of the measures adopted by the 
king ; had promised him their support, and besought him to 
prosecute, within the realm, all those who had been guilty 
of treasonable acts, in Massachusetts, since the year 1767, 
in accordance with the decree of parliament of the 35th 
of Henry VIII. Nevertheless, the committee performed 
their task with undaunted firmness, and reported the in- 
structions which, no doubt, contributed to produce the 
strong resolutions subsequently adopted by the legislature 
of Massachusetts. It was on account of these instructions 
and resolutions that the i^rovincial garrison was withdrawn, 
by order of the governor, from the castle, and regular 
troops, in the pay of the crown, substituted. The instruc- 
tions also formed one of the specific charges made against 
the colony by the committee of the lords of council for 
plantation affiiirs, to the lords of council, July 6, 1770. A 
striking example of the firmness and uprightness of Mr. 
Adams occurred during the course of that year. He had 
hitherto, been very active in stimulating the people of his 
province to the strenuous maintenance of their rights, and 
had thereby aided in producing an excitement greater than 
he could have wished, and which he found it necessary to 
counteract. The people of Boston had become exasperated 
at the idea of a garrison placed in their city, and were ex- 
tremely hostile to the soldiers composing it. These feelings 
led to an attack upon a party of them under the command 
of Captain Preston, March 5. They fired on the assailants 
in self-defence, and killed several of them. The soldiers 
were immediately arraigned before the civil authority, and 
Mr. Adams, in conjunction with Josiah Quincy and Mr. 
Sampson S. Blowers, were requested to aid them upon their 
trial. Although the minds of the people were inflamed 



JOHN ADAMS. 183 

almost to madness, and the defence of the accused seemed 
to involve a certain loss of popularity, Mr. Adams imme- 
diately undertook to act as their advocate. Mr. Adams 
was no demagogue — he saw that the honour of his country 
was at stake, and he rejoiced, as has been well said, in the 
opportunity of showing to the world that the cause of 
America did not depend upon a temporary excitement, 
which could stifle the voice of justice, but upon the sober, 
steady, persevering determination of the people to support 
their rights. The cause was conducted by him and his 
colleagues with great ability, and the soldiers were all 
acquitted, save two, who were found guilty of manslaughter, 
received a slight branding as a punishment, and were then 
discharged. Scarcely anything which occurred during the 
revolution confers more honour upon the national character, 
and did more service to the cause of America, than this 
triumph of justice. 

Mr. Adams soon received a proof that the public confi- 
dence in him was not diminished, by his election in May, 
1770, to the legislature of his state, as one of the repre- 
sentatives of the town of Boston. His conduct in this new 
situation displayed the same patriotism, courage, and 
hostility to the despotism of the mother country, by which 
he had always been distinguished. He took a prominent 
part in every public measure, and served on several com- 
mittees, who reported some of the most important state 
papers of the time, among which were the address and 
protest to the governor, against the removal of the General 
Court from Boston to Cambridge. In Bradford's History of 
Massachusetts, we find the following account of a contro- 
versy in which Mr. Adams was engaged in the year 1773. 
" The ministerial regulation for paying the salary of the 
judges, which rendered them wholly dependent on the 
crown, was the occasion of a learned and able discussion in 
the public papers, by William Brattle, senior, member of 



184 JOHN ADAMS. 

the council, and John Adams. The essays of the latter 
were written with great learning and ability, and had a 
happy effect in enlightening the public mind on a question 
of very great importance. It subjected him, indeed, to the 
displeasure of Governor Hutchinson and the ministerial 
party ; and at the next election in May, when elected by 
the assembly to the council, the governor gave his negative 
to the choice. These essays were published in the Boston 
Gazette of February, 1773, under Mr. Adams's proper 
signature." In 1774 he was again rejected by Governor 
Gage, and soon afterwards he was appointed one of the 
committee of the town of Boston, who prepared the 
celebrated resolutions on the Boston port-bill. June 17, 
of this year. Governor Gage having dissolved the assembly, 
this body, before separating, passed a resolution to appoint 
a committee to meet other committees from the other 
colonies, for the purpose of consulting upon their common 
interests. In consequence, Thomas Gushing, Samuel 
Adams, John Adams, and Robert Treat Paine were elected 
to the first Continental Congress, which met at Philadelphia 
in the following September. 

Soon after Mr. Adams was chosen, an incident occur- 
red which gives an idea of his feelings on contemplating 
this daring national movement. His friend Sewall, who 
had taken the ministerial side in politics, and was at that 
time attorney-general of the province, hearing of his elec- 
tion, invited him to a morning walk, in the course of which 
he endeavoured to dissuade him from his purpose of" 
assuming the seat in Congress to which he had been 
appointed. He told him that the determination of Great 
Britain to pursue her system was fixed; that her jDower 
was irresistible, and would involve him in destruction, as 
well as all his associates who persevered in opjDosition to 
her designs. 

" I know," replied he, " that Great Britain has deter- 



JOHN ADAMS. 185 

mined on her system, and that very determination deter- 
mines me on mine. You know that I have been constant 
and uniform in opposition to her designs. The die is now 
cast. I have passed the Rubicon. Sink or swim, Uve or 
die, survive or j)erish with my country, is my fixed un- 
alterable determination." On bidding him adieu, Mr. 
Adams said to his friend, " I see we must part, and with a 
bleeding heart I say, I fear for ever. But you may depend 
upon it, this adieu is the sharpest thorn on which I ever 
set my foot." 

Mr. Adams took his seat in Congress September 3d, 
1774, the first day of the session, and was soon chosen a 
member of some of the most important committees, such as 
that which drew up a statement of the rights of the 
colonies, and that which prepared the address to the king. 

He and his colleagues carried with them the character of 
being so thoroughly desirous of independence, that before 
they arrived at Philadelphia, warning had been given them 
by some of the most respectable inhabitants of the Middle 
States, not to utter a word on that subject, as it was as un- 
popular as the stamp act itself Almost all the delegates from 
other colonies were impressed with the idea that England 
could be brought to terms without resorting to a declaration 
of independence. Washington alone, of the Virginia delega- 
tion, was doubtful whether the measures adopted by Con- 
gress would be efficacious in attaining the object for which 
they were designed. 

On his return to Massachusetts, Mr. Adams became en- 
gaged in a controversy with his friend Sewall, who was 
writing a series of essays under the appellation of Massa- 
chusettensis, for the purpose of vindicating the cause of the 
government party. Mr. Adams's papers were published in 
the Boston Gazette, with the signature of Novanglus, and 
exhibited the cause of America in the most triumphant 
and favourable light. When Mr. Adams resumed his seat 



186 JOHN ADAMS. 

in Congress the following year, hostilities had in reality 
commenced between Great Britain and the colonists, though 
as yet not openly declared, and the blood of brave men had 
stained the plains of Lexington and Concord. On receiving 
the account of this battle, Congress determined upon war. 
It was necessary to fix upon some one for the post of com- 
mander-in-chief of the troops which were ordered to be 
raised. The eyes of all the New England delegation were 
turned upon General Ward, then at the head of the army 
in Massachusetts. At a meeting of them, when that officer 
was proposed for nomination, Mr. Adams alone dissented, 
and urged the selection of George Washington, one of the 
representatives from Virginia. He was resisted ; and he then 
left the meeting with the declaration, that Washington on 
the next day should be nominated. He was accordingly 
nominated, and chosen without an opposing voice. 

Five days after the appointment of General Washington, 
Mr. Jefferson made his first appearance on the floor of Con- 
gress, having been chosen by the people of Virginia to fill 
the place of Patrick Henry, who had lately been elected 
governor of that province. Between this distinguished 
man and Mr. Adams a friendship speedily arose, which con- 
tinued, with a short interruption, during the remainder of 
their lives. When Mr. Adams returned to Massachusetts, 
after the dissolution of the Congress of 1775, the post of 
chief justice of the state was offered to him, which he de- 
clined, on account of his belief that he should be able to 
render more effectual service to the cause of his country in 
its national councils. At the time that he resumed his seat 
in them in 1776, hostilities were active between Great Bri- 
tain and the colonies. But the object of the latter was as 
yet merely to resist the authority assumed by the parent 
country to impose taxes upon them at pleasure. Few per- 
sons entertained the idea of a dissolution of connexion; 
very few even of the delegates in Congress seemed to de- 



JOHN ADAMS. 187 

sire it ; but among these few John Adams was the foremost. 
We have already mentioned its unpopuhirity. As soon as 
Mr. Adams was suspected in Philadelphia of being an advo- 
cate of that measure, he was represented constantly in the 
most odious light, and even pointed at and avoided on ap- 
pearing in the streets. Still, however, he persevered, made 
every day proselytes, and May 6, 1776, moved in Congress 
a resolution, which was a virtual declaration of independ- 
ence, recommending to the colonies " to adopt such a gov- 
ernment as would, in the opinion of the representatives of 
the people, best conduce to the happiness and safety of their 
constituents, and of America." This passed, after a hard 
struggle, on the 15th of the same month, and was the pre- 
lude to the daring resolution, moved by Richard Henry 
Lee, of Virginia, on the 7th of June following, and seconded 
by Mr. Adams, " that these united colonies are, and of right 
ought to be, free and independent states ; that they are 
absolved from all allegiance to the British crown ; and that 
all political connexion between them and the state of Great 
Britain is, and of right ought to be, dissolved." 

The debate upon this motion was of the most exciting 
character. It continued from the 7th to the 10th, when 
the further discussion of the measure was postponed to the 
1st of July. A committee of five was also appointed to 
prepare a provisional draft of a "declaration of independ- 
ence." The members of it were chosen by ballot, and were 
Thomas Jefferson, John Adams, Benjamin Franklin, Roger 
Sherman, and Robert R. Livingston. Mr. Jefferson and Mr. 
Adams were deputed a sub-committee to prepare the instru- 
ment, the former of whom, at the earnest solicitations of 
the latter, became its author. On the 1st of July, Mr. Lee's 
resolution was again considered, and debated during that 
and the following day, when it was finally adopted. The 
draft of the declaration was then submitted for the pur- 
pose of undergoing an examination. It was passed on the 



188 JOHN ADAMS. 

4tli of the same month, as prepared by Mr, Jefferson, 
with only a few alterations, which were made through a 
prudent deference to the views of some of the states. Mr. 
Adams always preferred the draft as it originally stood. 

The declaration was not adopted without serious opposi- 
tion from many members of the Congress, including John 
Dickinson, one of the ablest men in that assembly. But 
their arguments were completely overthrown by the elo- 
quence of Mr. Adams, whose speech on the subject of 
independence is said to have been unrivalled. Mr. Jeffer- 
son himself has affirmed " that the great pillar of support 
to the Declaration of Independence, and its ablest advocate 
and champion on the floor of the house, was John Adams." 
Speaking of his general character as an orator, the same 
illustrious man observes, that he was " the Colossus of that 
Congress ; not graceful, not elegant, not always fluent in 
his public addresses, he yet came out with a power both of 
thought and expression, that moved his hearers from their 
seats." Mr. Silas Deane, who was a commissioner with Dr. 
Franklin and Mr. Arthur Lee, at the court of Versailles, 
having been recalled, Mr. Adams was chosen, November 
28, 1777, to fill his place. By this appointment, he was 
released from the laborious and important duties of chair- 
man of the board of war, which post he had filled since 
June 13, 1776. 

It is stated that he was a member of ninety committees, 
twice as many as any other representative, except Richard 
Henry Lee and Samuel Adams ; he was chairman of 
twenty-five. Among these committees were several of the 
greatest consequence ; one of them was that which was 
sent to Staten Island at the request of Lord Howe,j^M^ho 
ha I solicited an interview with some of the members of 
Congress. The interview effected nothing, on account of 
the refusal of his Lordship to consider the patriots as com- 
missioners from Congress, and the declaration made by Mr. 



JOHI^ ADAMS. 189 

Adams, that "he might view him in any light he pleased, 
except in that of a British subject." 

About two months after his appointment, Mr. Adams 
embarked in the Boston frigate, and arrived safely at his 
place of destination, though an English fleet had been 
despatched to intercept him. The treaties of commerce 
and alliance with France were signed before he reached 
that country, and, after remaining there until the following 
August, he returned to the United States, the nomination 
of Dr. Franklin as minister plenipotentiary to the court 
of Versailles having superseded the powers of the commis- 
sioners. 

Immediately on his arrival, Mr. Adams was elected a 
member of the convention to prepare a form of government 
for the state of Massachusetts, and placed upon the sub- 
committee chosen to draft the project of a constitution, 
to be laid before that body. The general frame of the 
constitution, particularly the manner of dividing and dis- 
tributing power, and the clause respecting the duty incum- 
bent upon government with regard to the patronage of 
literature and the arts and sciences, were the work of his 
pen. 

Three months after his return. Congress again sent him 
abroad with two commissions, one as minister plenipoten- 
tiary to negotiate a peace, the other to form a commercial 
treaty with Great Britain. He embarked in the French 
frigate Sensible, November 17, and was forced to land at 
Corunna, in Spain, from which place he travelled over the 
mountains to Paris, where he arrived in .February, 1780. 
After remaining a short time in that city, having found 
the French court jealous of his commission to form a treaty 
of commerce with Grea?t Britain, he repaired to Holland in 
August, 1780, the same j^ear in which Congress passed a 
vote of approbation of his conduct, instead of recalling him, 
as the French minister. Count de Vergennes, had solicited 
23 



190 JOHN ADAMS. 

them to do, on account of his refusal to communicate to 
him his instructions about the treaty of commerce, and 
his opposition to a chaim set up by France, that, when 
Congress called in the old continental paper money at 
forty for one, a discrimination ought to have been made 
in favour of the French holders of that paper. 

The June previous to his journey to Amsterdam, Mr. 
Adams was appointed in the room of Laurens to obtain 
loans in Holland, and, in December of the same year, was 
invested with full powers to negotiate a treaty of amity 
and commerce with that country. Mr. Adams at first had 
to contend with great difficulties in Holland. He was 
opposed by the whole influence of the British government, 
as well as by the power of the Prince of Orange, and even, 
strange as it may appear, by the intrigues of France her- 
self, the professed friend and avowed ally of the United 
States. He found the people of Holland entirely unac- 
quainted with the affairs of his country, and immediately 
l^egan to impart to them information concerning that 
subject, using for this purpose principally two newsj^apers, 
one called the Leyden Gazette, and the other Le Politique 
HoUandois, in which he wrote various political articles. 
He also published a series of twenty-six letters, in answer 
to a set of queries proposed to him by Mr. Kalkoen, an 
eminent jurist of Amsterdam, containing an account of the 
rise and progress of the dispute with Great Britain, and of 
the resources, spirit, and prospects of the United States'. 
These epistles, together with some essays written by Mr. 
Kalkoen, drawing a comparison between the struggles of 
the United States for their liberty, and those formerly 
made by the seven United Provinces, which eventuated in 
their independence, had a great effect in enlightening the 
people of Holland, and inspired them with sentiments 
highly favourable to the American cause. Shortly after- 
wards, December 21st, 1780, a rupture took place between 



JOHN ADAMS. 191 

England and Holland, occasioned by the accession of the 
latter to the armed neutrality, and the discovery of a 
negotiation between Mr. Lee, the American commissioner 
at Berlin, and Mr. Van Berckel, the pensionary of Amster- 
dam, for a treaty of amity and commerce. Even at this 
early period, he had formed an opinion decidedly in favour 
of the establishment of a navy, and expressed it in almost 
all his letters to his friends at home. 

In July, 1781, Mr. Adams was summoned to Paris for 
the purpose of consulting upon the offer of mediation made 
by the courts of Austria and Russia, and suggested an 
answer adopted by the French court, which put an end to 
the negotiation on that subject; the mediating powers 
refusing to acknowledge the independence of the United 
States without the consent of Great Britain. October 19th, 
1781, Mr. Adams, in opposition to the advice of the Duke 
de la Vauguion, the French minister at Hague, and on his 
own responsibility, communicated to their high mighti- 
nesses his letters of credence, presenting to the president 
also, at the same time, a memorial, dated April 19, in 
which he justified the declaration of independence, and 
endeavoured; to convince the people of Holland that it was 
for their interest to form a connexion with the United 
States, and to give them support in their difficulties. As 
he had not yet been acknowledged by the States General 
as the minister of a sovereign and independent nation, the 
president could not receive the memorial in form, but he 
engaged to make a report of the substance of what had 
been communicated to him by Mr. Adams. In the August 
previous, Mr. Adams had received instructions to propose 
a triple alliance between France, the United Provinces, 
and the United States, to exist as long as hostilities were 
carried on by the latter against Great Britain, one of the 
indispensable conditions of which, on the part of Holland, 
was the recognition of American independence. The 



192 JOHN ADAMS. 

alliance never was effected, but the latter object Mr. 
Adams accomplished. January 9th, 1782, not having 
received a reply to his memorial, he waited upon the presi- 
dent, and demanded a categorical answer. The States 
General then took the subject immediately into considera- 
tion, and Mr. Adams was acknowledged, April 19 th, as 
ambassador of the United States to their high mightinesses, 
and three days afterwards was received as such. 

Having obtained assurance that Great Britain would re- 
cognise the independence of the United States, Mr. Adams 
repaired, in October, 1782, to Paris, whither he had refused 
to go before such assurance M\as given, to commence the 
negotiation for peace, and there met Dr. Franklin, Mr. Jay, 
and Mr. Laurens, who, as well as Mr. Jefferson, had been 
appointed his colleagues. Their instructions, a part of 
which was " to undertake nothing without the knowledge 
and concurrence of the ministers of France, and ultimately 
to govern themselves by their ad\dce and opinion," placed 
them almost entirely under the control of the French court. 
They were greatly displeased at being thus shackled, and, 
after a very short time, finding themselves in a very em- 
barrassing situation, they boldly determined to disobey their 
instructions, and act for themselves and for their country, 
without consulting the ministers of a supposed treacherous 
ally. The definitive treaty of peace was ratified January 
14, 1783. After serving on two or three other commissions 
to form treaties of amity and commerce with foreign 
powers, Mr. Adams, in 1785, was appointed the first minis- 
ter to London. It is related that upon his introduction to 
the king, the latter, knowing his disgust at the intrigues 
of the French court, and wishing to compliment him, ex- 
pressed his pleasure at receiving a minister, who had no 
prejudices in favour of France, the natural enemy of his 
crown. The reply of Mr. Adams evinced his patriotism 
and honesty of character. " May it please your majesty," 



JOHN ADAMS. 193 

said he, " I have no prejudices but for my own country." 
In 1787, whilst in London, he published his Defence of the 
American Constitution against the attacks which it had 
sustained, and in October of that year, by his own request, 
he was allowed to return to the United States. Congress, 
at the same time that they gave him such permission, passed 
a resolution of thanks to be presented to him for his able 
and faithful discharge of the various important commissions 
with which he had been intrusted. 

Immediately after his return, Mr. Adams was elected 
vice-president of the United States, under the new consti- 
tution, and re-elected as such in 1792. He discharged the 
duties of his office until March 4th, 1797, when he suc- 
ceeded to the presidency, vacated by the resignation of 
General Washington. This great man's confidence he pos- 
sessed in an eminent degree, and was consulted by him as 
often as any member of the cabinet. As the two parties 
in the Senate were nearly balanced, Mr. Adams, while 
acting ex officio, as president of that body, had often to 
decide questions, by his casting vote, of the highest im- 
portance, and which had excited a great deal of party feel- 
ing. One instance of this occurred, when Mr. Clarke's reso- 
lution, prohibiting all intercourse with Great Britain on 
account of the capture of several American vessels by 
British ships, and other grievances, were brought before 
the Senate, after having been adopted by the House of 
Representatives, April 18, 1794. 

Upon this bill the senators were equally divided, and 
Mr. Adams decided against it, thinking that it would have 
no good effect upon the policy of England, would injure us 
as much as her, and perhaps occasion a war. 

When Washington expressed his determination to retire 
from the presidency, Mr. Adams was immediately proposed 
as his successor. It was generally understood that he 
cordially approved of the measures of Washington's ad- 



194 JOHN ADAMS. 

ministration, and it was believed that lie would maintain 
the same policy. The party of which Mr. Jefferson was 
the head, opposed his election ; but he received a consider- 
able majority of electoral votes. Mr. Jefferson was elected 
to the vice-presidency at the same time. Mr. Adams was 
inagurated on the 4th of March, 1797. His address was 
remarkable for force of thought and clearness of expression, 
and it gave general satisfaction. 

The relations between France and the United States first 
en2;a2;ed the attention of the administration. The Executive 
Directory, elated by their new and wondrous career of con- 
quest, w^ere disposed to assume towards foreign powers a 
tone of imperial arrogance. Mr. Pinckney, the American 
envoy, considered of the Federal rather than of the Galilean 
party, was informed that " he could not be received till 
existing grievances had been redressed ;" and was, moreover, 
almost bidden to quit the country. In addition to these 
insults to Pinckney, Monroe, the former envoy, was ad- 
dressed, at his audience to leave, in terms so vituperative as to 
amount almost to a declaration of war. The tone assumed 
was that of an appeal from the government to the people 
of the United States ; and the minister of France in America 
had adopted the same tone and conduct in endeavouring to 
influence the late elections. 

Whatever were the previous opinions of the new ])Yesi- 
dent, he now displayed himself as sensitive to these insults 
on the part of France as any of the Federals. His speech 
to Congress was couched in warmer and more spirited terms 
than even Washington w^ould have used. The drawing up 
an answer to this occasioned a full fortnight's debate in 
the House of Representatives ; but at length a reply corres-, 
pondent to the president's tone and view^s, was carried by 
51 or 52 voices against 48. This showed the balance of 
parties ; proved that Adams still kept the ascendancy, how- 
ever small, that Washington had done. Three envoys 



JOHN ADAMS. 195 

were appointed by the president to proceed to France, and 
beg, if not procure, an accommodation. Pinckney, the for- 
mer one, was at their head. 

All important business was at a stand in America during 
the latter end of 1797, and beginning of 1798, owing to 
uncertainty of the result of this mission. On its arrival, 
the envoys were treated with every slight. They saw M. 
Talleyrand, the minister for foreign affairs, but were in- 
formed that they could not be received by the Directory. 
They had permission to remain in Paris, however, and the 
agents of M. de Talleyrand, — a female amongst others, — 
were employed to negotiate with them. The true difficulty 
in the way of accommodation, in addition to the impertinent 
arrogance of the Directory, seemed to be, that Merlin and 
others received a great part of the gains accruing from 
American prizes made by the French. In order to counter- 
act this gold in one hand by gold in the other, Talleyrand 
demanded a douceur of 50,000/. for himself and chiefs, be- 
sides a loan to be afterwards made from America to France. 
To extract these conditions, every argument that iheanness 
could suggest was employed by Talleyrand : he demanded 
to be feed as a lawyer, or bribed as a friend. But the 
Americans were inexorable ; and two of their number re- 
turned, to announce to their countrymen the terms on wdiich 
peace was offered. The cupidity of the French government 
completely turned against it the tide of popular feeling in 
America. " Millions for defence, not a cent for tribute," 
was instantly the general cry ; and the president felt his 
hands strengthened by the demands of the French. Cer- 
tainly, never did minister show himself less sagacious than 
M. de Talleyrand in this affair, or more ignorant of the 
spirit and manners of a nation amongst whom he had re- 
sided. 

An army was now voted, consisting of twelve new regi- 
ments, with engineers and artillery corps. Washington 



196 JOHN ADAMS. 

was declared its commander-in-chief. A naval armament, 
too, was decided upon, and a new department — that of the 
navy — erected into a ministerial office, giving a seat in the 
cabinet. A land tax passed Congress. An alien bill was 
passed for getting rid of Volney, Collot, and other French 
emissaries ; and a sedition bill followed it, grievously com- 
plained of by the Democrats. Communication with France 
was prohibited, orders issued for capturing any of her 
vessels that appeared off the coast, and all treaties with 
that country were declared void. These successive steps 
were not taken without the opposition of a strong minority 
in Congress, of whom the vice-president, Jefferson, may be 
considered the leader. 

A great part, however, of this brief animosity against 
France proceeded from an idea that she meant to invade 
America, and to interfere, under the pretext of giving her 
some larger share of liberty, such as she had forcibly im- 
posed upon Switzerland. When, however, it was seen that 
France had no such ideas of offensive war, and when 
Talleyrand explained away his former arrogance by more 
recent declarations to Mr. Gerry, the envoy who had latest 
left France; and still later by overtures made through 
Pichon, the French charge cTaffaires at the Hague, to Mr. 
Murray ; there was somewhat of a reaction. This became 
evident in 1799, when the weight of the additional taxes, 
as also of the restriction laws, had made itself felt. Several 
states petitioned for the repeal of the alien and sedition 
acts ; whilst in others there was a general resistance to the 
officers employed on the valuation preparatory to the land 
tax. This last spirit showed itself chiefly in the western 
jDarts of Pennsylvania — a tract peopled in great part with 
Scotch and Irish emigrants, those who had formerly resisted 
the excise, and who had brought from their native land a 
strong antipathy to the tax collector. 

The president had, however, anticipated this reaction in 



JOHN ADAMS. 197 

favour of peace, by appointing Mr. Murray plenipotentiary 
to the French republic, with a proviso, however, that he 
was not to enter their territories ere assured of an honour- 
able reception. The Directory had fallen before that took 
place ; and the first consul, who succeeded to their power, 
had no mercenary interest in prolonging the state of lios- 
tihty. This was accordingly put a stop to, and a final 
treaty of peace was signed between France and America in 
the course of the year 1800. The war, whilst it lasted, 
had merely given rise to a few encounters at sea, in which 
the Americans almost always captured their antagonists. 

Two splendid victories were gained by Commodore Trux- 
tun, in the frigate Constellation, over French frigates of 
superior force. On the 9th of February, 1799, Truxtun 
captured, after an engagement of an hour and a quarter, 
the frigate I'lnsurgente of fifty-four guns. In a short time, 
the Constellation was again at sea. On the 1st of February, 
1800, she fell in with the frigate Le Vengeance, of fifty- 
four guns. An action of five hours' duration ensued, at the 
expiration of which the guns of the French vessel were 
silenced ; but in consequence of a sudden squall, she suc- 
ceeded in making her escape. Congress voted a gold medal 
to the commodore for the gallantry displayed in this action. 

The administration of Mr. Adams was a stormy one. 
The president was assailed by the Democrats with the ut- 
most bitterness, and many of the Federalists deserted him, 
Hamilton among the rest. But he firmly maintained his 
policy under all circumstances. His administration was not 
of long continuance, having pleased neither of the two great 
parties which divided the country (the greatest praise, per- 
haps, which it could receive), his measures being too strong 
for the Democrats and too weak for the Federalists. In con- 
sequence of this, after his term of four years had expired, 
March 4th, 1801, it was found that his antagonist, Mr Jef- 
ferson, had succeeded by a majority of one vote. Mr. Adams 
24 



198 JOHN ADAMS. 

retired to his farm at Quincy, Mass., and occupied himself 
with agricultural pursuits, obtaining amusement from the 
literature and politics of the day. He was nominated as 
governor of Massachusetts, but declined being a candidate, 
wishing only for repose. During the disputes with England, 
which occurred while Mr. Jefferson was in office, Mr. Adams 
published a series of letters, in a Boston paper, supporting 
the policy of the administration. His published writings, 
besides those we have already mentioned, are " Discourses 
on Davila," composed in 1790, while he w^as vice-president, 
and printed in June and July of that year, in the Gazette 
of the United States. 

In 1816, Mr. Adams was chosen a member of the electo- 
ral college, which voted for the elevation of Mr. Monroe to 
the presidency ; and the following year sustained the great- 
est affliction that he had ever been called upon to endure, 
by the loss of his wife. On this occasion he received a 
beautiful letter of condolence from Mr. Jefferson, between 
whom and himself their former friendship, interrupted for 
a time by the animosities of party, had been revived. In 
1820 he was elected a member of the convention to revise 
the constitution of Massachusetts, and chosen its president. 
This honour he was constrained to decline, on account of 
his infirmities and great age, being then 85 years old ; but 
he attended the convention as a member, and fulfilled the 
duties incumbent upon him as such. After that his life 
glided away in uninterrupted tranquillity, until the 4th of 
July, 182G, when he breathed his last with the same hal- 
lowed sentiment on his lips, which on that glorious day, 
fifty years before, he had uttered on the floor of Congress — 
" Independence for ever !" On the morning of the jubilee, 
he was roused by the ringing of the bells and the firing of 
the cannon, and, on being asked by the servant who attend- 
ed him, whether he knew what day it was, he replied " Oh 
yes ! it is the glorious fourth of July — God bless it ! God 



JOHN ADAMS. 



199 



bless you all !" In the course of the day, he said, "It is a 
great and glorious day !" and just before he expired ex- 
claimed, " Jefferson survives." But Jefferson had already, 
at one o'clock, that same day, rendered his spirit into the 
hands of its Creator. 

Tlie character of John Adams stands out boldly in his 
whole career. He was an honest, generous, and high- 
minded man ; a most immaculate patriot ; a skilful diplo- 
matist ; a sound statesman and a magnificent orator. He 
has been censured by narrow-mindedmen, as monarchical in 
his opinions and aristocratic in his social habits. But he 
had a profound faith in the people, and ever eulogized our 
republican constitution. He merely deemed a strong exe- 
cutive necessary to the safety of the country in the early 
part of its career. Those habits which have been called 
aristocratic, were nothing more than we expect to find in 
every man of independent mind and dignified self-respect. 
John Adams will gain in reputation, the more his career is 
studied, and that causeless enmity which some persons bear 
to his policy will merge into admiration at his splendid 
qualities and patriotic services. 




CAPTURE OF TUE INSUllGKNT. 



THOMAS JEFFERSON. 



No statesman or politician has exercised a greater in- 
fluence upon the pohtics of the United States than Thomas 
Jefferson. His principles and his practice were rigidly 
democratic, and though they encountered a stern and de- 
termined opposition while he was in office, parties formed 
subsequent to his death have disputed for the honour of 
bearing their standard. Historians have agreed, that he, 
beyond the other leading statesmen of the era in which he 
flourished, had a deep and abiding faith in humanity, and 
that he ever retained his belief in the capability of man for 
self-government, and firmly opposed those statesmen who 
were disposed to follow in the beaten path, which the 
monarchies and oligarchies of the old world had so long 
j)ursued. His policy triumphed over that of his opponents, 
and at this day parties do not take sides for or against it, 
but contend, like children, as to their legitimate descent 
from the " apostle of democracy." 

Thomas Jefferson was born on the 2d of April, 1743, on 
the farm called Shad well, adjoining Monticello, in the 
county of Albemarle, Virginia. He was the eldest son of 
Peter Jefferson and Jane Randolph. At the age of five, 
Thomas was placed at an English school, where he con- 
tinued four years — at the expiration of which he was trans- 
ferred to a Latin school, where he remained five years, 
under the tuition of Mr. Douglass, a clergyman from Scot- 

(200) 



^<!^0^ yP^ 




THOMAS JEFFERSON". 203 

land. With the rudiments of the Latin and Greek tongues 
he gained a knowledge of the French. When he was only 
fourteen, his father died, leaving him to the care of his 
mother, as the illustrious Washington had been left. Soon 
after the death of his father, Jefferson was placed under 
the instruction of the Rev. Mr. Maury, to complete the 
necessary preparation for college. He studied two years 
under that gentleman, and at the age of seventeen entered 
the college of William and Mary. " While in college," 
says B. L. Rayner, " he was more remarkable for solidity 
than sprightliness of intellect. His faculties were so even 
and well balanced, that no particular endowment appeared 
pre-eminent. His course M^as not marked by any of those 
eccentricities which often presage the rise of extraordinary 
genius, but by that constancy of pursuit, that inflexibility 
of purpose, that bold spirit of inquiry, and thirst for 
knowledge, which are the surer prognostics of future great- 
ness. His habits were those of patience and severe appli- 
cation, which, aided by a quick and vigorous apprehension, 
a talent of close and logical combination, and a retentive 
memory, laid the foundation sufficiently broad and strong 
for those extensive acquisitions which he subsequently 
made. The mathematics were his favourite study, and in 
them he particularly excelled. Nevertheless, he distin- 
guished himself in all the branches of education embraced 
in the established course of that college. To his devotion 
to philosophy and science, he united an exquisite taste for 
the fine arts. In those of architecture, painting, and sculp- 
ture, he made himself such an adept as to be afterwards 
accounted one of the best critics of the age. For music he 
had an uncommon passion; and his hours of relaxation 
were passed in exercising his skill upon the violin, for 
which he evinced an early and extravagant predilection. 
His fondness for the ancient classics strengthened continu- 
ally with his strength, insomuch that it is said he scarcely 



204 THOMAS JEFFERSON. 

passed a day, in after life, without reading a portion of 
them. The same remark is apphcable to his passion for 
the mathematics. He became so well acquainted with both 
the great languages of antiquity as to read them with ease, 
and so far perfected himself in French as to become familiar 
with it, which was, subsequently, of essential service to him 
in his diplomatic labours. He could read and speak the 
Italian language, and had a competent knowledge of the 
Spanish. He also made himself master of the Anglo-Saxon, 
as a root of the English, and ' an element in legal phi- 
lology.' 

" The acquaintances he happily formed in college probably 
determined the cast and direction of his ambition. These 
were the first characters in the whole province ; among 
whom, he has placed on record the names of three indi- 
viduals wdio were particularly instrumental in fixing his 
future destinies : viz. Dr. Small, one of the professors in 
college, 'who made him his daily companion;' Governor 
Fauquier, ' the ablest man who had ever filled that office, 
to whose acquaintance and fiimiliar table' he was admitted; 
and George Wythe, 'his faithful and beloved mentor in 
youth, and his most afiectionate friend through life.' "* 

In 17G2 Mr. Jefferson graduated at college, and imme- 
diately applied himself to the study of the law, under the 
direction of Mr. Wythe. During this studious period, he 
had an opportunity of hearing a speech, the effect of which 
never faded from his mind. This was the grand oratorical 
effort of Patrick Henry on the resolution of 1765, against 
the Stamp-Act. This speech gave a direction to the ardent 
ambition of the future author of the Declaration of Inde- 
pendence. Soon afterwardfc!, he selected for a motto on his 
seal, the emphatic " Resistance to Tyrants is obedience to 
God." 

In 1767, Mr. Jefierson was inducted into the practice 

*Pkayner. 



THOMAS JEFFERSON. 205 

of the law at the bar of the General Court, under the 
auspices of his preceptor and friend, Mr. Wythe. He 
brought with him into practice the whole body of ancient 
and modern jurisprudence, text and commentary, from its 
rudest monuments in Anglo-Saxon, to its latest depositories 
in tlie vernacular tongue, well systematized in his mind, 
and ready for use at a moment's warning. But his pro- 
fessional career was brief, and not favoured with any occa- 
sion adequate to disclose the fitness of his technical 
^preparation, or the extent of his abilities as an advocate. 
The outbreaking of the Revolution, which occasioned a 
general abandonment of the courts of justice, followed 
close upon his introduction to the bar; and ushered him 
upon a broader and more diversified theatre of action. 

During the short interval he spent in his profession, he 
acquired considerable celebrity ; but his forensic reputation 
was so disproportionate to his general pre-eminence, as to 
have occasioned the common impression, that he was defi- 
cient in the requisite qualifications for a successful practi- 
tioner at the bar. That this was not the case, however, 
we have the authority of a gentleman,* whose opportu- 
nities of information and well known trustworthiness are a 
pledge of the literal accuracy of his statement. " Permit 
me," says he, "to correct an error which seems to have 
prevailed. It has been thought that Mr. Jefferson made 
no figure at the bar : but the case was far otherwise. 
There are still extant, in his own fair and neat hand, in 
the manner of his master, a number of arguments which 
were delivered by him at the bar upon some of the most 
intricate questions of the law ; which, if they shall ever see 
the light, will vindicate his claims to the first honours of 
the profession." 

Mr. Jefferson had scarcely been admitted to the bar, 
when his fellow-citizens elected him to a seat in the legis- 

* William Wirt. 



206 THOMAS JEFFERSON. 

lature, which he first occupied in May, 1769. Burning to 
effect something for the cause of human hberty, he, the 
largest slave-holder in the house, proposed a bill "for the 
permission of the emancipation of the slaves." Of course, 
the proposition was rejected by an overwhelming vote, 
yet Mr. Jefferson gained considerable reputation by the 
moral daring he had displayed. 

The business of ordinary legislation was drawing to a 
close in Virginia. The collision between Great Britain 
and her colonies had arrived at a crisis which suspended 
the regular action of government, and summoned the 
attention of its functionaries to more imperious concerns. 
Patrick Henry, who was seven years older than Mr. Jeffer- 
son, and three or four ahead of him in public life, had 
hitherto been the master-spirit of the revolution at the 
south ; and had sustained its principal brunt by his Buperior 
firmness. The time had now arrived when he was to 
divide the burthen and the glory of the distinction with 
one who was his junior only in years and eloquence, his 
equal in moral courage, but in everything else his superior. 
The session of the legislature that first saw Mr. Jefferson 
a member, saw him first also in the little council of the 
brave. The same session (1769) carried Virginia into a 
new mode of resistance to British tyranny, which he was 
chiefly instrumental in establishing — to wit, the system of 
non-intercourse, by which the colonies gradually dissolved 
all commercial connexion with the mother country. 

The unequivocal attitude into which Virginia had thrown 
herself, by the opposition to the stamp act, which she 
headed in '65, was imitated with rapidity by all the other 
colonies ; which raised the general tone of resentment to 
such a height, as made Great Britain herself quail before 
the tempest she had excited. The stamp act was re- 
pealed ; but its repeal was soon followed by a series of 
parUamentar}' and executive acts, equally unconstitutional 



THOMAS JEFFERSON. 207 

and oppressive. Among these, were the clecLaratory act of 
a right in the British Parhament to tax the colonies in all 
cases ; the quartering of large bodies of British soldiery in 
the principal towns of the colonies, at the expense and to 
the annoyance of the inhabitants ; the dissolution, in rapid 
succession, of the colonial assemblies, and the total suspen- 
sion of the legislative power in New York ; the imposition 
of duties on all teas, glass, paper, and other of the most 
necessary articles imported into the colonies, and the 
appointment of commissioners, armed with excessive 
powers, to be stationed in the several ports for the purpose 
of exacting the arbitrary customs. These measures, with 
others of a similar character, provoked immediate retaliation 
in the commercial provinces. 

The resolutions of the Lords and Commons arrived in 
America in May, 1769. The House of Burgesses of 
Virginia was then in session, and Mr. Jefferson was for 
the first time a member. These menacing paj^ers were 
principally directed against the people of Massachusetts ; 
but the doctrines avowed in them were too extraordinary 
to be overlooked in any assembly which contained a Jeffer- 
son. They were no sooner made known to the House, 
then he proposed the adoption of counter resolutions, and 
warmly advocated the propriety of making common cause 
with Massachusetts, at every hazard. Counter resolutions 
and an address to the King were accordingly agreed to, 
with little opposition ; and the determination was then and 
there formed, of considering the cause of any one colony as a 
common one. 

The seed of the Aynerican Union was here first sown. 
By the resolutions which they passed, the legislature re- 
asserted the exclusive right of the colonies to tax them- 
selves in all cases whatsoever ; denounced the recent acts 
of Parliament, as flagrant violations of the British Constitu- 
tion ; and sternlj^ remonstrated against the assumed right 
25 



208 THOMAS JEFFERSON. 

to transport the freeborn citizens of America to England, 
to be tried by their enemies. The tone of these resokitions 
was so strong as to excite for the first time the displeasure 
of the governor, the amiable Lord Bottetourt. The House 
had scarcely adopted and ordered them to be entered upon 
their journals, when they were summoned to his presence, 
to receive the sentence of dissolution. "Mr. Speaker," 
said he, " and gentlemen of the House of Representatives, 
I have heard of your resolves, and augur ill of their effects ; 
you have made it my duty to dissolve you, and you are 
accordingly dissolved." 

But the interference of the executive had no effect but 
to encourage the holy feeling it attempted to repress. The 
next day, led on by Jefferson, Henry, and the two Lees, 
the great body of the members retired to a room, called the 
Apollo, in the Raleigh tavern, the principal hotel in Wil- 
liamsburg. They there formed themselves into a voluntary 
convention, drew up articles of association against the use 
of any merchandise imported from Great Britain, signed, 
and recommended them to the people. They repaired to 
their several counties, circulated the articles of the league 
among their constituents, and to the astonishment of all, 
so popular was the measure that at the call of another 
legislature they were themselves re-elected without an 
exception. 

The dissolution of the House of Burgesses was not 
attended with any change in the popular representation ; 
except in the very few instances of those who had with- 
held their assent from the patriotic proceedings. The 
next meeting of the legislature of any permanent in- 
terest, which was not until the spring of 1773, saw Mr. 
Jefferson again at his post, intent upon the business of 
substituting just principles of government for those which 
prevailed. 

A court of inquiry, held in Rhode Island as far back as 



THOMAS JEFFERSON. 209 

1762, in which was vested the extraordinary power to 
transport persons to England, to be tried for offences com- 
mitted in America, was considered by him as demanding 
attention, even after so long an interval of silence. He 
was not in public life at the time this proceeding was insti- 
tuted, and consequently had not the power to raise his 
voice against it; but when an important principle was 
violated, he deemed it never too late to rally. Acquiescence 
in such an encroachment, would give it the force of prece- 
dent, and precedent would soon establish the right. An 
investigation and protest, too, would rouse the apprehen- 
sions of the colonists, which had already relapsed into 
repose. This appeared to him a more desirable result, 
than the simple assertion of right in that particular case. 
No unusual excitement having occurred during the pro- 
tracted interval of legislative interruption, the people had 
fallen into a state of insensibility; and yet the same causes 
of irritation existed, that had recently thrown them into 
such ferment. The duty on tea, with a multitude of co- 
existing incumbrances, still pressed upon them; and the 
Declaratory Act of a right in the British Parliament to 
bind them by their laws in all cases, was still suspended 
over them hanging by the thread of ministerial caprice. 
The lethargy of the public mind, under such injustice, 
indicated to Mr. Jefferson a fearful state of things. It pre- 
sented to his eye a degree of moral prostration, but one 
remove from that which constitutes the proper element 
for despotism, and invites its visitations. It appeared 
to him indispensable that something should be done to 
break the dead calm which rested on the colonies, and 
to rouse the people to a sense of their situation. Some- 
thing, moreover, had been wanting to produce concert 
of action, and a mutual understanding between the colo- 
nies. 

These objects could only be accompl^hed, he thought. 



210 THOMAS JEFFERSON. 

by the rapid dissemination of the earliest intelHgence of 
events, with proper comments. This would keep the ex- 
citement alive and spread discontents, many of which were 
local, from colon}^ to colony. With a view, therefore, to 
these hnportant objects, and not thinking the old and lead- 
ing members had gained the requisite point of forwardness, 
he proposed to a few of the younger ones, a private meet- 
ing in the evening, "to consult on the state of things." 
On the evening of the 11th of March, 1773, we find this 
little band of Virginia patriots, Jefferson, Henry, R. H. 
Lee, F. L. Lee, and Dabney Carr, assembled in a private 
room of the Raleigh tavern, to deliberate on the concerns 
of all British America. This conclave, at the Raleigh 
tavern in Williamsburg, had the merit of erecting the most 
formidable engine of colonial resistance that had been 
devised — the '■'•Committees of Correspondence' between the 
legislatures of the different colonies : and the first ofispring 
of this measure was a movement of inconceivable conse- 
quence, not only to America, but to the world — the call of 
a (jeneral Congress of all the colonies,* 

On the 12th of March, 1773, Mr. Jefferson was chosen 
a member of the first committee of correspondence esta- 
blished by the colonial legislatures, the act already alluded 
to, as the most important of the revolution in preparing 
tlie way for that union of sentiment and action from whence 
arose the first effective resistance, and on which depended 
the successful progress and final triumph of the cause. 

The year 1774 found Mr. Jefferson still actively engaged 
in his duties as a member of the legislature of Virginia. 
The passage by Parliament of the Boston Port Bill, by 
which that port was to be shut up on the 1st of June, 
1774, was the next event which aroused the indignation 
and excited the sympathies of the House. It arrived while 
they were in session in the spring of 1774. It was at this 

* llajner. 



THOMAS JEFFERSON. 211 

crisis tliat Mr. Jefferson wrote, and the members, though 
not then adopting as resokitions, afterwards pubhshed his 
''Summary View of the Rights of British America;" and 
in which he maintained what was then thought b}^ many 
a bold position, but which he considered as the only orthodox 
and tenable one : that the relation between Great Britain 
and the colonies was exactly the same as that of England 
and Scotland, after the accession of James, and until tlie 
union, and the same as her present relation with Hanover, 
having the same executive chief, but no other necessary 
political connexion ; and that our emigration from England 
to this country gave her no more rights over us than the 
emigration of the Danes and Saxons gave to the authorities 
of the mother country over England. 

In these sentiments, however, bold as they were, his 
political associates joined with him ; they considered those 
acts of oppression directed against the colonies of New 
England, acts in which all were concerned, and an attack 
on the liberties and immunities of every other province. 
They accordingly resolved, that the 1st day of June, the 
day on which the Boston Port Bill was to go into operation, 
should be set apart by the members as a day of fasting, 
humiliation and prayer, " devoutly to implore the divine 
interposition for averting the heavy calamities which 
threatened destruction to their civil rights, and the evils of 
a civil war; and to give them one heart and one mind, to 
oppose by all just and proper means every injury to Ame- 
rican rights." 

Lord Dunmore, the royal governor of the province, could 
not be otherwise than highly exasperated at such proceed- 
ings. Mr. Jefferson, who had boldly avowed himself the 
author of the obnoxious pamphlet, was threatened with a 
prosecution by him for high treason ; and the House of 
Burgesses was immediately dissolved after their daring pub- 
lication. Notwithstanding these measures, the members 



212 THOMAS JEFFERSON. 

met in their private capacities, and mutually signed a 
spirited publication, setting forth the unjust conduct of the 
governor, who had left them this, their only method, to 
point out to their countrymen the measures they deemed 
the best calculated to secure their liberties from destruction 
by the arbitrary hand of power. They told them that they 
could no longer resist the conviction, that a determined 
system had been formed to reduce the inhabitants of British 
America to slavery, by subjecting them to taxation without 
their consent, by closing the port of Boston, and raising a 
revenue on tea. They therefore strongly recommended a 
closer alliance with the sister colonies, the formation of 
committees of correspondence, and the annual meeting of a 
general Congress ; and earnestly hoping that a persistence 
in these principles would not compel them to adopt measures 
of a more decisive character. 

The pamphlet having found its way to England, it was 
taken up by the opposition, and, with a few interpolations 
by the celebrated Edmund Burke, passed through several 
editions. It procured for its author considerable reputation, 
and likewise the dangerous honour of having his name 
placed on a list of proscriptions in a bill of attainder, which 
was commenced in one of the houses of Parliament, but was 
speedily suppressed. In the same bill the names of Han- 
cock, the two Adamses, Peyton Randolph, and Patrick 
Henry, were inserted. 

The year 1775, destined to be so eventful for America, 
opened with some attempts of the British ministry to effect 
a reconciliation. But such rigorous measures followed that 
the colonies were exasperated. Lord North perceived this, 
and brought forward the project of a law, purporting that 
when in any province or colony, the Governor, Council, 
Assembly, or General Court, should propose to make pro- 
visions according to their respective conditions, circumstan- 
ces, and faculties, for contributing their proportion to the 



THOMAS JEFFERSON. 213 

common defence ; such proportion to be raised under the 
authorities of the General Court or Assembly in each pro- 
vince or colony, and disposable by Parliament ; and should 
engage to make provision also for the support of the civil 
government, and the administration of justice in such pro- 
vince or colony ; it would be proper, if such proposal should 
be approved by the king in his Parliament, and for so long 
as such provision should be made accordingl}^, to forbear, in 
respect of such province or colony, to impose any duties, 
taxes, or assessments, except only such as might be thought 
necessary for the regulation of commerce. 

On the 1st of June, 1775, this resolution was presented 
by Lord Dunmore, the governor, to the legislature of Vir- 
ginia ; and Mr. Jefferson was selected by the committee, to 
whom it was referred, to frame the reply. This was done 
with so much force of argument, enlarged patriotism, and 
sound political discretion, that it will ever be considered as 
a document of the highest order. It concludes in these 
words : 

" These, my Lord, are our sentiments on this important sub- 
ject, which we offer only as an individual part of the whole 
empire. Final determination we leave to the General Con- 
gress now sitting, before whom we shall lay the papers your 
Lordship has communicated to us. For ourselves, we have 
exhausted every mode of application which our invention 
could suggest as proper and promising. We have decently 
remonstrated with Parliament : they have added new in- 
juries to the old. We have wearied our king with sup- 
plications : he has not deigned to answer us. We have 
appealed to the native honour and justice of the British 
nation : their efforts in our favour have hitherto been in- 
effectual. What, then, remains to be done ? That we com- 
mit our injuries to the even-handed justice of that Being 
who doth no wrong, earnestly beseeching him to illuminate 
the councils, and prosper the endeavours of those to whom 



214 THOMAS JEFFERSON. 

America liath confided her hopes ; that, through their wise 
directions, we may again see reunited the blessings of Hb- 
erty, prosperity, and harmony with Great Britain." 

When this address had been passed, Mr. Jefferson imme- 
diately proceeded to Congress, which was then in session, 
and gave them the first notice they had of it. It was 
highly approved of by them. He had been elected on the 
27th of March, 1775, one of the members to repre-- 
sent Virginia in the General Congress already assembled 
at Philadelphia, but had delayed his departure until now 
at the request of Mr. Randolph, who was fearful the draft- 
ing of the address alluded to would, in his absence, have 
fallen into feebler hands. An elegant biographer asserts : 
" When about to leave the colony, a circumstance is stated 
to have occurred to him, and to Mr. Harrison and Mr. Lee, 
his fellow-delegates, that conveyed a noble mark of the un- 
bounded confidence which their constituents reposed in their 
integrity and virtue. A portion of the inhabitants, who, 
far removed from the scenes of actual tyranny which were 
acted in New England, and pursuing uninterruptedly their 
ordinary pursuits, could form no idea of the slavery impend- 
ing over them, waited on their three representatives, just 
before their departure, and addressed them in the following 
terms : 

" You assert that there is a fixed design to invade our 
rights and privileges; we own that we do not see this 
clearly, but since you assure us that it is so, we believe the 
fact. We are about to take a very dangerous step ; but we 
confide in you, and are ready to support you in every 
measure you shall think proper to adopt." On the 21st 
of June, 1775, Mr. Jefierson appeared, and took his seat 
in the Continental Congress. In this new capacity he per- 
severed in the decided tone which he had assumed, always 
maintaining that no accommodation should be made between 
the two countries, unless on the broadest and most liberal 



THOMAS JEFFERSON. 215 

principles ; and here, as elsewhere, he soon rendered him- 
self conspicuous among the distinguished men of the day. 
On the 24th of the same month, a committee which had 
been appointed to prepare a declaration setting forth the 
causes and necessity of resorting to arms, brought in their 
report (drawn up, as it was believed, by J. Rutledge), which, 
not being approved of, the house recommitted it, and added 
Mr. Dickinson and Mr. Jefferson to the committee. 

Mr. Jefferson prepared the draft of the declaration com- 
mitted to them. It was drawn with singular ability, and 
exhibited his usual firmness and discretion ; but it was 
considered as too decided by Mr. Dickinson. He still 
nourished the hope of a reconciliation with Great Britain, 
and was unwilling it should be lessened by what he con- 
sidered as offensive statements. He was so honest a man, 
says Mr. Jefferson, and so able a one, that he was greatly 
indulged even by those who could not feel his scruples. 
He was therefore requested to take the paper and put it in 
a form he could approve. He did so, preparing an entire 
new statement, and preserving of the former only the last 
four paragraphs and half of the preceding one. The com- 
mittee approved and reported it to Congress, who accepted 
it. CongTess, continues Mr. Jefferson, gave a signal proof 
of their indulgence to Mr. Dickinson, and of their great 
desire not to go too fast for any respectable part of their 
body in permitting him to draw their second petition to the 
king, according to his own ideas, and passing it with scarcely 
any amendment. The disgust against its humility was 
general ; and Mr. Dickinson's delight at its passage, was 
the only circumstance which reconciled them to it. The 
vote being passed, although further observation on it was 
out of order, he could not refrain from rising and express- 
ing his satisfaction, and concluded by saying, " There is 
but one word, Mr, President, in the paper, which I disap- 
prove, and that is the word Congress/' on which Mr. B. Har- 
26 



216 THOMAS JEFFERSON. 

rison rose and replied, " There is but one word in the paper, 
Mr. President, of which I approve, and that is the word 
Congress.'''' 

Lord North's conciHatory resolution coming before the 
house, Mr. Jefferson, as one of the committee, was re- 
quested to prepare the report on the same. The answer 
of the Virginia Assembly on the same subject having been 
approved, will account for any similarity between the 
two reports, they both having proceeded from the same 
hand. 

On the 11th of August, Mr. Jefferson was again elected 
a delegate from Virginia, to the third Congress. Though 
constantly and actively engaged during the winter in the 
various matters which engaged the attention of the house, 
yet he seems rather to have devoted himself to objects of 
general policy, the arrangement of general plans and sys- 
tems of action, the investigation of important documents, 
and objects of a similar nature, than to the details of active 
business, for which other members could probably be found 
equally well qualified. 

The year 1776 set in eventfully. While the army of 
"Washington was suffering every hardship and privation in 
the cause of freedom, the people discussed the question of 
independence, and it was soon apparent that a majority 
were disposed to throw off all connexion with Great 
Britain, 

On the 28th of May, upon motion of Mr. Jefferson, 
Congress resolved " that an animated address be published, 
to impress the minds of the people with the necessity of 
now stepping forward to save their country, their freedom, 
and their property." Being appointed chairman of the 
committee upon this resolution, he prepared the address ; 
and an animated one it was; conceived in his happiest 
manner, with a power of expression and of argument which 
carried conviction and courage to the breast of every man. 



THOMAS JEFFERSON. 217 

This was another ingenious stroke of policy, designed to 
prepare the poj)ular mind for a favourable recejDtion of the 
momentous decision in reserve. 

The delegates from Virginia received their instructions 
early in June, and immediately held a conference to devise 
suitable means for their due execution. Richard H. Lee, 
being the oldest in the delegation, and endowed with 
extraordinary powers of eloquence, was designated to make 
the introductory motion, and the 7th of June was 
ordered as the day. Accordingly, on that day he rose 
from his seat and moved that Congress should declare 
" That these United Colonies are, and of right ought to be, 
free and independent States ; that they are absolved from 
all allegiance to the British Crown, and that all political 
connexion between them and the state of Great Britain, is, 
and ought to be, totally dissolved ; that measures should be 
immediately taken for procuring the assistance of foreign 
powers, and a Confederation be formed to bind the colonies 
more closely together." The House being obliged to attend 
at that time to some other business, the proposition was 
deferred till the next day, when the members were ordered 
to attend punctually at ten o'clock. 

Saturday, June 8th, Congress proceeded to take the 
subject into consideration, and referred it to a committee 
of the whole, into which they immediately resolved them- 
selves, and passed that day and Monday, the 10th, in warm 
and vehement debates. 

The conflict was painful. The grounds of opposition to 
the measure affected its expediency as to time, rather than 
its absolute propriety, and were strenuously urged by Dick- 
inson and Wilson of Pennsylvania, Robert R. Livingston 
of New York, Edward Rutledge of South Carolina, and 
some others. The leading advocates of the immediate 
declaration of independence were Mr. Jefferson, John and 
Samuel Adams, Lee, Wythe, and some others. The heads 



218 THOMAS JEFFERSON. 

only of the arguments delivered on this interesting occasion 
have been preserved — by one man alone, Mr. Jefferson, 
and they owe their first disclosure to the world, to his 
posthumous publication.* 

The tenor of the debate indicated such a strength of 
opposition to the measure, that it was deemed impolitic to 
press it at this time. The colonies of New York, New 
Jersey, Pennsylvania, Delaware, Maryland, and South 
Carolina, were not yet matured for falling from the parent 
stem, but, as they were fast advancing to that state, it was 
thought most prudent to wait awhile for them. The final 
decision of the question was therefore postponed t-o the 1st 
of July. But, that this might occasion as little delay as 
possible, it w^as ordered that a committee be appointed to 
prepare a Declaration of Independence, in accordance 
with the motion. Mr. Jefferson having the highest number 
of votes, was placed at the head of this committee ; the 
other members were John Adams, Dr. Franklin, Roger 
Sherman, and Robert R. Livingston. The committee met, 
and unanimously solicited Mr. Jefferson to prepare the 
draft of the Declaration alone. He drew it; but before 
submitting it to the committee, he communicated it sepa- 
rately to Dr. Franklin and Mr. Adams, with a view to 
avail himself of the benefit of their criticisms. They 
criticised it, and suggested two or three alterations, merely 
verbal, intended to soften somewhat the original phrase- 
ology. The committee *unanimously approved it ; and on 
Friday, the 28th of June, he reported it to Congress, when 
it was read and ordered to lie on the table. 

On Monday the 1st of July, agreeably to assignment, 
the House resolved itself into a committee of the whole, 
and resumed the consideration of the preliminary motion. 
It was debated again through the day, and finally carried 

* See Vol. I., Jefferson's Works. 



THOMAS JEFFERSON. 219 

in the affirmative by 'the votes of New Hampshire, Con- 
necticut, Massachusetts, Rhode Island, New Jersey, Mary- 
land, Virginia, North Carolina, and Georgia. South 
Carolina and Pennsylvania voted against it. Delaware 
had but two members present, and they were divided. 
The delegates from New York declared they were for it 
themselves, and were assured their constituents were for 
it ; but that their instructions having been drawn near a 
twelvemonth before, when reconciliation was still the 
general object, they were enjoined by them to do nothing 
which should impede that object. They therefore thought 
themselves not justifiable in voting on either side, and 
asked leave to withdraw from the question ; which was 
granted them. In this state of things, the committee rose 
and reported their resolution to the House. Mr. Edward 
Rutledge, of South Carolina, then requested that the 
decision might be put off to the next day, as he believed 
his colleagues, though they disapproved of the resolution, 
would then join in it for the sake of unanimity. The 
ultimate decision by the House was accordingly postponed 
to the next day, July 2d, when it was again moved, and 
South Carolina concurred in voting for it. In the mean 
time, a third member had come post from the Delaware 
counties, and turned the vote of that colony in favour of 
the resolution. Members of a different sentiment attending 
that morning from Pennsylvania, her vote also was 
changed ; so that the whole twelve colonies, who were 
authorized to vote at all, gave their voice for it; and with- 
in a few days, July 9 th, the Convention of New York 
approved of it, and thus supplied the void occasioned by 
the withdrawal of her delegates from the question. It 
should be observed that these fluctuations and the final 
vote were upon the original motion, to declare the colonies 
independent. 

Congress proceeded the same day, July 2d, to consider 



220 ■■ THOMAS JEFFERSON. 

the Dedaration of Independence, which had heen reported 
the 28th of June, and ordered to lie on the table. The 
debates were again renewed with great violence — greater 
than before. Tremendous was the ordeal through which 
the title-deed of our liberties, perfect as it had issued from 
the hands of its artificer, was destined to pass. Inch by 
inch was its progress through the House disputed. Every 
dictum of peculiar political force, and almost every expres- 
sion, was made a subject of acrimonious animadversion by 
the anti-revolutionists. On the other hand, the champions 
of independence contended with the constancy of martyrs, 
for every tenet and every w^ord of the precious gospel of 
their faith. Among the latter class, the author of the 
Declaration himself has assigned to John Adams the station 
of pre-eminence. 

The debates were continued with unremitting heat 
through the 2d, 3d, and 4 th days of July, till on the 
evening of the last, the most important day perhaps 
politically speaking, that the world ever saw — they were 
brought to a close. The principle of unanimity finally 
prevailed ; reciprocal concessions, sufficient to unite all on 
the solid ground of the main purpose, were made. In 
the generous spirit of compromise, however, some of the 
most splendid specifications in the American Charter were 
surrendered. On some of these it is well known the 
author himself set the highest value, as recognising j^rin- 
ciples to which he was enthusiastically partial, and which 
were almost peculiar to him. 

For the purpose of comparing the original with the 
amended form, the Declaration shall be presented as it came 
from the hands of the author. The parts stricken out by 
Congress are printed in italics, and enclosed in brackets ; and 
those inserted by them are placed in the margin. The 
sentiments of men are known by w^hat they reject, as well 
as by what they receive, and the comparison in the present 



THOMAS JEFFERSON. 221 

case, will demonstrate the singular forwardness of one mind 
on certain great principles of political science. 

A Declaration hy the Representatives of the United States of 
America, in Qeneral Congress assembled. 

When, in the course of human events, it be- 
comes necessary for one people to dissolve the 
political bands which have connected them with 
another, and to assume among the powers of the 
earth, the separate and equal station to which the 
laws of nature and of nature's God entitle them, 
a decent respect to the opinions of mankind re- 
quires, that they should declare the causes which 
impel them to the separation. 

We hold these truths to be self-evident : that 
all men are created equal ; that they are endowed 
by their Creator with [inherent and~\ inalienable certain 
rights; that among these are life, liberty, and the 
pursuit of happiness ; that to secure these rights, 
governments are instituted among men, deriving 
their just powers from the consent of the governed ; 
that whenever any form of government becomes 
destructive of these ends, it is the right of a peo- 
ple to alter or abolish it, and to institute a new 
government, laying its foundation on such prin- 
ciples, and organizing its powers in such form, as 
to them shall seem most likely to effect their safety 
and happiness. Prudence, indeed, will dictate 
that governments long established should not be 
changed for light and transient causes ; and ac- 
cordingly all experience hath shown that mankind 
are more disposed to suffer while evils are suffer- 
able, than to right themselves by abolishing the 
forms to which they are accustomed. But when 
a long train of abuses and usurpations [hegim at 



222 THOMAS JEFFERSON. 

a distinguished period and^ pursuing invariably 
the same object, evinces a design to reduce them 
under absolute despotism, it is their right, it is 
their duty to throw off such government, and to 
provide new guards for their future security. 
Such has been the patient sufferance of the colo- 
nies; and such is now the necessity which con- 
alter strains them to \expunge'\ their former systems 
of government. The history of the present king 
repeated of Great Britain is a history of \_unremitting~\ in- 
juries and usurpations, \_among idMcIi ajypears no 
solitary fact to contradict the unifonn tenor of the 
all having rest, hut all have'] in direct object the establish- 
ment of an absolute tyranny over these States. 
To prove this, let facts be submitted to a candid 
world [/o7' the truth of which im pledge a faith yet 
unsullied hy falsehood.'] 

He has refused his assent to laws the most 
wholesome and necegsary for the public good. 

He has forbidden his governors to pass laws of 
immediate and pressing importance, unless sus- 
pended in their operation till his assent should 
be obtained; and, when so suspended, he has 
utterly neglected to attend to them. 

He has refused to pass other laws for the ac- 
commodation of large districts of people, unless 
those people would relinquish the right of repre- 
sentation in the legislature, a right inestimable to 
them, and formidable to tyrants only. 

He has called together legislative bodies at 
places unusual, uncomfortable, and distant from 
the depository of their public records, for the sole 
purpose of fatiguing them into compliance with 
his measures. 

He has dissolved representative Houses re- 



THOMAS JEFFERSON. 223 

peatedly [and conilnualJij] for opposing with 
manly firmness his invasions on the rights of the 
people. 

He has refused for a long time after such dis- 
solutions to cause others to be elected, whereby 
the legislative powers, incapable of annihilation, 
have returned to the people at large for their 
exercise, the State remaining, in the mean time, 
exposed to all the dangers of invasion from with- 
out and convulsions within. 

He has endeavoured to prevent the population 
of these States ; for that j)urpose obstructing the 
laws for naturalization of foreigners, refusing to 
pass others to encourage their migrations hither, 
and raising the conditions of new appropriations 
of lands. 

He nas [sufferecT] the administration of justice obstructed 
[totally to cease in some of these States~\ refusing his by 
assent to laws for establishing judiciary powers. 

He has made \our'\ judges dependent on his 
will alone for the tenure of their offices, and the 
amount and payment of their salaries. 

He has erected a multitude of new offices [% 
a self-assumed poioer'] and sent hither swarms of 
new officers to harass our people, and eat out 
their substance. 

He has kept among us in times of peace stand- 
ing armies \_aiul slaps of 1001)"] without the consent 
of our legislatures. 

He has affected to render the military independ- 
ent of, and superior to, the civil power. 

He has combined with others to subject us to 
a jurisdiction foreign to our constitutions and un- 
acknowledged by our laws, giving his assent to 
their acts of pretended legislation for quartering 
27 



224 THOMAS JEFFERSON. 

large bodies of armed troops among us ; for pro- 
tecting them by a mock trial from punishment 
for any murders which they should commit on 
the inhabitants of these States ; for cutting off 
our trade with all parts of the world; for impos- 
ing taxes on us without our consent ; for depriv- 

in many ing US [ ] of the benefits of trial by jury j for 
transporting us beyond seas to be tried for pre- 
tended offences ; for abolishing the free system of 
English laws in a neighbouring province, establish- 
ing therein an arbitrary government, and enlarg- 
ing its boundaries, so as to render it at once an 
example and fit instrument for introducing the 

colonies same absolute rule into these [states] ; for taking 
away our charters, abolishing our most valuable 
laws, and altering fundamentally the forms of our 
governments ; for suspending our own legislatures, 
and declaring themselves invested with power to 
legislate for us in all cases whatsoever. 

by declaring He lias abdicated government here [tvlthdraw- 

protection ^^ ^^^9 ^^^ govevnors, mid declaring us out of his alle- 

and waging giance Wild protection. "] 

us ° He has plundered our seas, ravaged our coasts, 

burnt our towns, and destroyed the lives of our 
people. 

He is at this time transporting large armies of 
foreign mercenaries to complete the works of 
death, desolation, and tyranny already begun 

scarcely par- with circumstances of cruelty and perfidy [ ] 

alleled in the ,, ,, , in • -r j i* 

most barbar- uuwortliy the head 01 a civilized nation. 

ous ages and jjg j^r^g constrained our fellow-citizens taken 

totally 

captive on the high seas to bear arms against their 
country, to become the executioners of their 
friends and brethren, or to fall themselves by 
their hands. 



THOMAS JEFFERSON. 225 

He has [ ] endeavoured to bring on the in- excited do- 
habitants of our frontiers the merciless Indian ™ctiois''^"^' 
savages, whose known rule of warfare is an ^^^i^" ^nd^^lg^^' 
tinguished destruction of all ages, sexes and con- 
ditions [of existence^ 

\He has incited treasonable insurrections of our 
fellow-citizens, tvith the allurements of forfeiture 
and confiscation of our ^rojperty. 

He has urged cruel ivar against human nature 
itself, violating its most sacred rights of life and 
liherty in the persons of a distant people who never 
offended Mm, captivating and carrying them' into 
slavery in another hemisphere, or to incur miserable 
death in ilieir transportation thither. This piratical 
warfare, the opyprohrium of infidel powers, is the 
warfare of the Christian king of Great Britain. 
Determined to keep open a market lohere men should 
he bought and sold, lie has prostituted his negative 
for suppressing evei^y legislative attempt to prohibit 
or to restrain this execrable commerce. And that 
this assemblage of horrors might want no fact of 
disthiguished dye, lie is now exciting those very 
people to rise in arms among us, and to purchase 
thai liherty of which he ha^ deprived them, by mur- 
dering the people on whom he also obtru,ded them : 
thus paying off former crimes committed against 
the LIBERTIES of one people loith crimes which he 
urges them to commit against the lives of cmother^ 

In every stage of these oppressions we have 
petitioned for redress in the most humble terms : 
our repeated petitions have been answered only 
by repeated injuries. 

A prince whose character is thus marked by 
every act which may define a tyrant is unfit to 
be the ruler of a [ ] people [ivlio mean to be free, free 



226 THOMAS JEFFERSON. 

Future ages will scarce!?/ helieve that the hai^diness 
of one man adventured, luithin the short comj^ass 
of ttvelve years only, to lay a foundation so broad 
and so U7idisguised for tyranny over a people fos- 
tered and fixed m principles of freedom J^ 

Nor have we been wanting in attentions to our 
British brethren. We have warned them from 
an unwar- time to time of attempts by their legislature to 
us extend \a\ jurisdiction over \tliese our states^ 

We have reminded them of the circumstances of 
our emigration and settlement here \jio one of 
ivliich could warrant so strange a pretension : that 
these loere effected at the expense of our own hlood 
and treasure, unassisted hy the wealth or the strength 
of Great Britain: that in constituting indeed our 
several forms of government, we had adopted one 
common Mng, thereby laying a foundation foir per- 
petual league and amity with them: but that sub- 
missio7i to their Parliament was no ptart of our con- 
stitution, nor ever in idea, if history may be credited: 
have and^ we [ ] appealed to their native justice and 

and we have magnanimity [as well as fe] the ties of our com- 
them by T^^oii kindred to disavow these usurpations which 
■would inevitr [were likely /o] interrupt our connexion and cor- 
^''^ respondence. They too have been deaf to the 

voice of justice and of consanguinity, [a7id luhen 
occasions have been given them, hy the regidar course 
of their laws, of removing from their councils the 
disturbers of otir harmony, they have, by their free 
election, re-established them inp)Ower. At this very 
time, too, tliey are p>er milling their chief magistrate 
to send over not cmly soldiers of our common blood, 
but Scotch and foreign, mercenaries to invade and 
destroy us. These facts have given the last stab . to 



THOMAS JEFFERSON. 227 

agonizing affection, and manly spirit bids us to re- 
nounce/or ever these unfeeling brethren. We must 
endeavour to forget our former love for them, and 
hold them as we hold the rest of mankind, enemies 
in war, in peace, friends. We might have been a 
free and a great people together ; but a communica- 
tion of grandeur and of freedom, it seems, is below 
their dignity. Be it so, since they will have it. The 
road to happiness and to glory is open to us too. 
We will tread it apart from them, and~\ acquiesce We must 
in the necessity which denounces our [eternaT] 
separation [ ] ! and hold 

them as we 
hold the rest 
of mankind, 
enemies in 
war, in peace 
friends. 

We, therefore, the representatives of 
the United States of America in General appealing to the supreme 
Congress assembled, [ ] doin the name,-;«'«;„°f J^»J°;;|f^ ^ 
and by the authority of the good people teutions 
of these [states, reject and renounce a/Z colonies, solemnly pub- 
alleqiance and subjection to the kinqs of l^^^ ''^"4^ declare, that 

, , o .1 these united colonies are 

Great Britain and all others who may^"^^ of right ought to 

7 /., 7 - 7 ,7 7 7 be free and independent 

hereafter claim by, through, or ?*??c/er states; that they are ab-. 
them; we utterly dissolve all political con- ^^""^l""^ ^'""P} ^^^ allegiance 

, . to the iSntish crown, and 

nexion which may heretofore have sub--tha.t all political connex- 
sisted between us and the people or Par-XteToTellTv^l^^s, 
liament of Great Britain: and finally '^V*^ "^'^f^ht to be, totaiiy 

, 7 7 7 7 7 • dissolved- 

we CIO assert and declare these colonies to 

be free and indep)e7ident states^ and that 

as free and independent states, they have 

full power to levy war, conclude peace, 

contract alliances, establish commerce, 

and do all other acts and things which 

independent states may of right do. 

And for the support of this declara- 



228 THOMAS JEFFERSON. 

with a firm reliance on tion, [ ] we mutually pledge to each 
pruvFdencef'' '^ '^^'■^^' other our lives, our fortunes, and our 
sacred honour. 

The Declaration thus amended in committee of the 
whole, was rej)orted to the House on the 4th of July, 
agreed to, and signed by every member present except Mr. 
Dickinson. On the 19th of July it was ordered to be en- 
grossed on parchment; and on the 2d of August, the 
engrossed copy, after being compared at the table with the 
original, was ordered to be signed by every member. 

On the same day that independence was declared, Mr. 
Jefferson was appointed one of a committee of three, to 
devise an appropriate coat of arms for the republic of the 
" United States of America." 

The Declaration was received by the people wdth un- 
bounded admiration and joy. On the 8th of July it was 
promulgated with great solemnity, at Philadelphia, and 
saluted by the assembled multitude with peals on peals of 
acclamation. On the 11th it was published in New York, 
and proclaimed before the American army, then assembled 
in the vicinity, with all the pomp and circumstance of a 
military pageant. It was received with exultation by the 
collected chivalry of the revolution. They filled the air 
with their shouts, and shook the earth with the thunders 
of their artillery. In Boston, the popular transports were 
unparalleled. The national manifesto was proclaimed from 
the balcony of the Capitol, in the presence of all the autho- 
rities, civil and military, and of an innumerable concourse 
of people. An immense banquet was prepared, at which 
the authorities and all the principal citizens attended, and 
drank toasts expressive of enthusiastic veneration for liberty, 
and of detestation of tyrants. The rejoicings were con- 
tinued through the night, and every ensign of royalty that 
adorned either the public or private edifice, was demolished 
before morning. Similar demonstrations of patriotic en- 



THOMAS JEFFERSON. 229 

thusiasm attended the reception of the Declaration in all 
the cities and chief towns of the continent.* 

Mr. Jefferson gained the highest praises for the author- 
ship of the glorious Declaration, and we are justified in the 
opinion that it will remain a permanent monument of his 
genius and love of liberty. While he lived, it was the 
corner-stone of his fame; and dying, he requested that 
the honour of its authorship should be inscribed upon his 
tomb. 

The term for which Mr. Jefferson had been elected to 
Congress expired on the 11 th of August, 1776; and he 
had communicated to the Convention of Virginia, in June 
preceding, his intention to decline a re-appointment. But 
his excuses were overruled by that body, and he was unani- 
mously re-elected. On receiving intelligence of the result, 
gratifying as it evidently was, he addressed a second letter 
to the chairman of the Convention, in which he adhered to 
his original resolution. 

He continued in Congress until the 2d of September fol- 
lowing, when his successor having arrived, he resigned his 
seat and returned to Virginia. 

Thus closed the extraordinary career of Mr. Jefferson in 
the Continental Congress. His actual attendance in that 
renowned legislature had been only about nine months; 
and yet he had succeeded in impressing his character, in 
distinct and legible traces, upon the whole. The result is 
remarkable when considered in connexion with his imma- 
ture age. He had at this time attained only his thirty- 
third year, and was the youngest man but one in the session 
of 1776. 

Mr. Jefferson had been absent from Philadelphia but a 
few days when he was appointed a commissioner to France 
with Dr. Franklin, an extraordinary evidence of the confi- 
dence Congress had in his ability and patriotism. But this 

* Rayuer. 



t 

230 THOMAS JEFFERSON. 

appointment was declined for the same reason that had 
induced Mr. Jefferson to resign his seat in the national 
Assembly. But he had scarcely returned to Virginia 
before he was elected to a seat in the legislature of Virginia. 
This post he thought proper to accept, as he desired to 
effect many important reforms in the constitution and laws 
of his native state. By bringing about the abolition of 
the law of entail, he struck a fatal blow at the existence 
of a landed aristocrac}^, and by proposing new organizations 
of the legislative and judiciary branches of government, 
he secured a full and harmonious action in state affairs. 
At this time the influence of Mr. Jefferson was deej)ly felt 
in Virginia, and he left the impress of his creative genius 
on all her institutions. He laboured for the abolition of 
slavery, but was not successful, further than in securing the 
suppression of the commerce in slaves. He succeeded 
in establishing the broadest religious freedom by laws 
which have been imitated in almost every state in the 
Union. 

But it was not to the revision of the laws of his state, 
or other laborious public duties, that Mr. Jefferson entirely 
devoted himself He at this time, in a noble manner, 
displayed the sternness of his justice, the purity of his 
heart, and the softness of his feelings, by deprecating all 
cruelty to a fallen foe, and by extending a hand of charity 
to the foiled ravagers of his country. His sympathies were 
excited by proposed wrong to the unfortunate, and he gave 
his indignant, powerful, and successful pen to their assist- 
ance. 

Congress, it will be recollected, had resolved to retain in 
America the troops who had surrendered at Saratoga, until 
the terms of capitulation which had been entered « into 
by the British general, were duly ratified by and obtained 
from, his government. Until this was done and received, 
it was thought expedient to remove them into the inte- 



THOMAS JEFFERSON. 231 

rior of the country : and the neighbourhood of Charlottes- 
ville, in Virginia, was selected as the place of their resi- 
dence. 

" There they arrived early in the year 1779. The win- 
ter was uncommonly severe ; the barracks unfinished for 
want of labourers ; no sufficient stores of bread laid in ; 
and the rqads rendered impassable by the inclemency of the 
weather and the number of wagons which had lately tra- 
versed them." Mr. Jefferson, aided by Mr. Hawkins, the 
commissary-general, and the benevolent disposition of his 
fellow-citizens, adopted every plan to alleviate the distresses 
of the troops, and to soften, as much as possible, the hard- 
ships of captivity. Their efforts were attended with suc- 
cess. The officers who were able to command money 
rented houses and small farms in the neighbourhood, 
while the soldiers enlarged the barracks and improved 
their accommodations, so as in a short time to form a 
little community, flourishing and happy. These arrange- 
ments had scarcely been completed, when, in consequence 
of a power lodged in them by Congress, the governor and 
council of Virginia determined to remove the prisoners to 
another state, or to another part of the same state. This 
intention was heard by the caj)tives with distress. Mr. 
Jefferson immediately addressed a letter to Governor Henry, 
in which he stated the impolicy, impropriety, and cruelty 
of such a measure. 

The eloquent appeal was entirely successful ; nor was it 
ever forgotten by those unfortunate captives from whom it 
averted tyranny, and for whose security and comfort it was 
penned. They duly appreciated his kindness and generosity, 
and their attachment and gratitude were lasting ; and in 
his subsequent travels through Europe, when chance again 
threw him in their society, they loaded him with civility 
and kindness, and spoke to their countrymen in warm terms 
of the hospitality of Virginia. When about to leave Char- 
28 



232 - THOMAS JEFFERSON. 

lottesville, the principal officers wrote to him, to renew 
their thanks, and to bid him adieu : the answer of Mr. Jef- 
ferson to one of them has been preserved. "The httle 
attentions," he says, "you are pleased to magnify so much, 
never deserved a mention or a thought. Opposed as we 
happen to be in our sentiments of duty and honour, and 
anxious for contrary events, I shall, nevertheless^ sincerely 
rejoice in every circumstance of happiness and safety 
which may attend you personally." 

On the 1st of June, 1779, Mr. Jefferson was appointed 
governor of Virginia, which office he held during two 
years. He distinguished himself in this position by so far 
intimidating the British governor of Detroit, that that 
personage ceased to instigate savage atrocities upon the 
frontier. 

In the sjDring of 1780, when Cornwallis and Tarleton 
began to ravage the southern border of Virginia, the 
governor exerted himself to aid the small force of the 
Americans, and restrain the enemy. Although he had 
never devoted much attention to military matters, his 
promptitude and energy supplied all deficiencies of know- 
ledge, and enabled him to oppose some checks to the pro- 
gress of the enemy. 

On the 2d of June, 1781, the term for which Mr. Jefferson 
had been elected, expired, and he returned to the situation 
of a private citizen, after having conducted the affairs of 
his state through a period of difficulty and danger, without 
any parallel in its proceeding or subsequent history, and 
with a prudence and energy that might have gained him 
more fame, had the times been less unpropitious, but which, 
from that very reason, have been, and will be, more appre- 
ciated and honoured in succeeding times. " I resigned," 
says he, " from a belief that, under the pressure of the in- 
vasion under which we were then labouring, the pubHc 
would have more confidence in a military chief, and that, 



THOMAS JEFFERSON. . 233 

the military commander being invested with the civil power 
also, both might be wielded with more energy, promptitude, 
and effect, for the defence of the state." 

Two days after his retirement from the government, and 
when on his estate at Monticello, intelligence was suddenly- 
brought that Tartleton, at the head of two hundred and 
fifty horse, had left the main army for the purpose of sur- 
prising and capturing the members of Assembly at Char- 
lottesville. The House had just met, and was about to 
commence business, when the alarm was given ; they had 
scarcely taken time to adjourn informally to meet at 
Staunton on the 7th, when the enemy entered the village, 
in the confident expectation of an easy prey. The escape 
was indeed narrow, but no one was taken. In pursuing the 
legislature, however, the governor was not forgotten ; a 
troop of horse under a Captain M'Leod had been despatched 
to Monticello, fortunately with no better success. The in- 
telligence received at Charlottesville was soon conveyed 
thither, the distance between the two places being very 
short. Mr. Jefferson immediately ordered a carriage to be 
in readiness to carry off his family, who, however, break- 
fasted at leisure with some guests. Soon after breakfast, 
and when the visiters had left the house, a neighbour rode 
up in full speed, with the intelligence that a troop of horse 
was then ascending the hill. Mr. Jefferson now sent off 
his family, and after a short delay for some indispensable 
arrangements, mounted his horse, and taking a course 
, through the woods, joined them at the house of a friend, 
where they dined. 

•On the 15th of June, 1781, Mr. Jefferson was appointed, 
with Mr. Adams, Dr. Franklin, Mr. Jay, and Mr. Laurens, 
a minister plenipotentiary for negotiating peace, then ex- 
pected to be effected through the mediation of the Empress 
of Russia ; but such was the state of his family, that he 
could neither leave it nor expose it to the dangers of the 



234 THOMAS JEFFERSON. 

sea, and was consequently obliged to decline. In the autumn 
of the next year, Congress having received assurances that 
a general peace would be concluded in the winter and spring, 
renewed his appointment on the IStli November of that 
year. Two months before the last appointment, he had 
lost the cherished companion of his life, in whose affections, 
unabated on both sides, he had lived the last ten years in 
unchequered happiness. With the public interests, the 
state of his mind concurred in recommending the change 
of scene proposed ; he accordingly accepted the appoint- 
ment, and left Monticello on the 19th of December, 1782, 
for Philadelphia, where he arrived on the 27th. The minis- 
ter of France, Luzerne, offered him a passage in the Romu- 
lus frigate, and which was accepted ; but she was then lying 
a few miles below Baltimore, blocked up in the ice. Mr. 
Jefferson remained, therefore, a month in Philadelphia, 
looking over the papers in the office of state, and possessing 
himself of the general situation of our foreign relations, 
and then went to Baltimore, to await the liberation of the 
frigate from the ice. After waiting there nearly a month, 
information was received, that a provisional treaty of peace 
had been signed by our commissioners on the 3d of Septem- 
ber, 1782, to become absolute on the conclusion of peace 
between France and Great Britain. Considering his pro- 
ceeding to Europe as now of no "utility to the public, he 
returned immediately to Philadelphia, to take the orders 
of Congress, and was excused by them from further pro- 
ceeding. He therefore returned home, and arrived there 
on the loth of May, 1783. 

On the 6tli of June, 1783, Mr. Jefferson w^as again elect- 
ed a delegate to Congress, the appointment to take place on 
the first of November ensuing, when that of the existing 
delegation would expire. He accordingly left home on the 
IGth of October, arrived at Trenton, where Congress was 
sitting, on the 3d November, and took his seat on the 4th, 



THOMAS JEFFERSON". 235 

on which day Congress adjourned, to meet at Annapolis on 
the 26th. 

" Congress," says he, " had now become a very small 
body, and the members very remiss in their attendance on 
its duties, insomuch that a majority of the states, necessarj'^ 
by the Confederation to constitute a house, even for minor 
business, did not assemble until the 13th of December." 

In this body, Mr. Jefferson, as was to be expected, took 
a prominent station, and became, at once, engaged in all 
the principal measures that occupied the public attention. 
Among other services rendered by him, was that of estab- 
lishing a standard of value for the country, and the adoption 
of a money unit. 

Early in December, letters were received from the com- 
missioners in France, accompanied with the definitive 
treaty between the United States and Great Britain, which 
had been signed at Paris on the 3d of September. They 
were immediately referred to a committee, of which Mr. 
Jefferson was chairman. On the 14th of January, 1784, 
on the report of this committee, the treaty was unani- 
mously ratified, thus putting an end to the eventful struggle 
between the two countries, and confirming the independ- 
ence which had already been gained. 

About this period an opportunity was offered to Mr. 
Jefferson, of expressing again, as he had already so fre- 
quently done, his earnest desire to provide for the emanci- 
pation of the negroes, and the entire abolition of slavery in 
the United States. Being appointed chairman of a com- 
mittee to which was assigned the task of forming a plan 
for the temporary government of the Western Territory, 
he introduced into it the following clause : " That after the 
year 1800 of the Christian era, there shall be neither slavery, 
nor involuntary servitude in any of the said states, other- 
wise than in punishment of crimes, whereof the party shall 
have been convicted to have been personally guilty." When 



236 THOMAS JEFFERSON. 

the report of the committee was presented to Congress, 
these words were, however, struck out. 

On the 7th of May, Congress resolved that a minister 
plenipotentiary should be apj)ointed, in addition to Mr. 
Adams and Dr. Franklin, for negotiating treaties of com- 
merce with foreign nations, and Mr. Jefferson was elected 
to that duty. He accordingly left Annapolis on the 11th, 
taking with him his eldest daughter, then at Philadelphia, 
and proceeded to Boston in quest of a passage. While 
passing through the different states, he informed himself of 
the condition of the commerce of each, went on to New 
Hampshire with the same view, and returned to Boston. 
Thence he sailed on the 5tli of July in a merchant ship 
bound to Cowes ; which, after a pleasant voyage of nineteen 
days, reached the place of her destination on the 26th. 
After being detained there a few days by the indisposition 
of his daughter, he embarked on the 30th for Havre, arrived 
there on the 31st, left it on the third of August, and arrived 
at Paris on the 6th. He called immediately on Dr. Frank- 
lin, at Passy, communicated to him their charge, and wrote 
to Mr. Adams, then at the >Hague, to join them at Paris.* * 

In the mean time, Mr. Jefferson had prepared his famous 
" Notes on Virginia," a work distinguished for extent of 
information, and an elegant simplicity of style. It was writ- 
ten at the request of M. Marbois, a Frenchman of distinc- 
tion. 

Since the treaty of peace, the English government had 
been particularly distant and unaccommodating in its rela- 
tions with the United States ; but at one period of Mr. 
Jefferson's residence abroad, it was supposed that there 
were some symptoms of better disposition shown towards 
us. On this account he left Paris, and on his arrival at 
London, agreed with Mr. Adams on a very summary form 
of treaty, proposing " an exchange of citizenship for our 
citizens, our ships, and our productions generally, except as 

*Linn. 



THOMAS JEFFERSON. 237 

to office." At the usual presentation, however, to the king 
and queen, both Mr. Adams and himself were received in 
the most ungracious manner, and they at once discovered, 
that the ulcerations of mind in that quarter, left nothing to 
be expected on the particular subject of the visit. A few 
vague and ineffectual conferences followed, after which he 
returned to Paris. He did not, however, cease to keep a 
watchful eye on the proceedings and conduct of the British 
nation, and his letters to the department of foreign affairs 
contain many facts in regard to it, and many instances of 
the jealous and unfriendly feeling which sprung from and 
long survived the misfortunes of her colonial conflict. 

■ The commissioners succeeded in their negotiations only 
with the governments of Morocco and Prussia. The 
treaty with the latter power is so remarkable for some 
of the provisions it contains, that it stands solitary in 
diplomacy and national law. Blockades arising from all 
causes, and of every description, were abolished by it; 
the flag, in every case, covered the property, and contra- 
bands were exempted from confiscation, though they might 
be employed for the use of the captor, on payment of 
their full value. This, it is said, is the only convention 
ever made by America in which the last stipulation is 
introduced, nor is it known to exist in any other modern 
treaty. 

On the 10th of March, 1785, Mr. Jefferson was unani- 
mously appointed by Congress to succeed Dr. Franklin as 
minister plenipotentiary at the court of Versailles ; and on 
the expiration of his commission in October, 1787, he was 
again elected to the same honourable situation. He re- 
mained in France until October, 1789. 

While in France, Mr. Jefferson was engaged in many 
diplomatic negotiations of considerable importance to Ame- 
rica, though not of sufficient interest to arrest the attention 
of the general reader. The great questions which had so 



238 THOMAS JEFFERSON. 

long occupied the public mind, were fitted to arrest the 
attention of the most thoughtless, affecting as they did the 
policy of nations and the fate of empires ; but the details 
which arise out of the interpretation of treaties, or the 
measures which are necessary to increase their effect, and 
to remedy their deficiencies, are interesting only to him 
who studies the minute points of political history. These 
only were the objects which could claim the attention of 
the minister to France, at this period ; they did not call 
forth any prominent display of his great and various talents, 
but they required no ordinary address, involved as they 
were by the skilful intrigues of such ministers as Vergennes 
and Calonne, and opposed, for the most part, by all the 
men of influence who thought that their interests might 
be compromised or endangered. Among the principal bene- 
fits then obtained, and continued to the United States until 
the period of the French revolution, were the abolition of 
several monopolies, and the free admission into France 
of tobacco, rice, whale oil, salted fish, and flour; and 
of the two latter articles into the French West India 
Islands. 

During his residence in Europe, Mr. Jefferson also visited 
Holland, and his memoir embraces a brief but clear account 
of the fatal revolution, by which the Prince of Orange 
made himself sovereign of that republic, so long and honour- 
ably independent. He also crossed the Alps, and travelled 
through Lombardy, though he did not extend his journey 
to the southern part of the peninsula. In returning to 
Paris, he visited all the principal seaports of the southern 
and western coasts of France, and made many and in- 
teresting observations with regard to the culture of the 
vine, olive, and rice, which were carefully communicated to 
his friends across the Atlantic ; and he had reason to believe, 
afterwards, that they had not failed to produce benefits, 
which in time will be of wide-extended utility. 



THOMAS JEFFERSON-. 239 

When Mr. Jefferson reached Paris, he found that city 
in high fermentation from the early events of the revo- 
lution ; and, during the remainder of his stay in Europe, 
his attention was well and fully occupied in observing, 
as an eye-witness, the progress of the extraordinary oc- 
currences which from that time took place in rapid succes- 
sion. 

While in France, Mr. Jefferson enjoyed an intimacy 
with a great number of remarkable and celebrated person- 
ages, and the observations he has recorded are worthy of 
a high consideration. He was charmed with the vivacity 
of French society, and formed a very exalted estimate of 
the intellectual character of the French. 

As Mr. Jefferson was absent from America, both during; 
the session of the convention which formed the constitution, 
and while that act was under discussion in the several 
states, he had no opportunity to take part in its formation. 
The want of a general government had been severely felt, 
and the difficulties of the country were greatly increased, 
by the failure of treaties abroad, which might have given a 
system to our foreign relations, that could scarcely be ex- 
pected, while the states presented a social form so feebly 
connected; the federal constitution, therefore, had been 
framed from a general conviction of its necessity. No one 
rejoiced more than Mr. Jefferson at the formation of the 
new constitution, and its ratification by the states. Of the 
great mass of it, also, he entirely approved. In a letter to 
Mr. Madison, dated Paris, December 20, 1787, he thus 
writes : " I like much the general idea of framing a govern- 
ment, which should go on of itself, peaceably, without 
needing continual recurrence to the state legislatures. I 
like the organization of the government into legislative, 
judiciary, and executive. I like the power given the legis- 
lature to levy taxes, and for that reason solely, I approve 
of the greater house being chosen by the people directly. 
29 



240 THOMAS JEFFERSON. 

For though I think a House, so chosen, will be very far 
inferior to the present Congress, it will be very illy qualified 
to legislate for the Union, for foreign nations, &c. ; yet this 
evil does not weigh against the good of preserving inviolate 
the fundamental principle, that the^ people are not to be 
taxed but by representatives chosen immediately by them- 
selves. I am captivated by the compromise of the opposite 
claims of the great and little states, of the latter to equal, 
and the former to proportional influence. I am much 
pleased, too, with the substitution of the method of voting 
by persons, instead of that of voting by states : and I like 
the negative given to the executive, conjointly with a third 
of either house; though I should have liked it better, had 
the judiciary been associated for that purpose, or invested 
separately with a similar power. There are other good 
things of less moment." 

There w^ere some things, however, in the new system 
which Mr. Jefferson did not like. These were the omission 
of a bill of rights, and the abandonment in almost every 
instance of the principle of rotation in office, and most 
particularly in the case of the president. The first men- 
tioned was the chief objection not only of Mr. Jefferson, 
but of Patrick Henry and the whole state-rights party. 

After the inauguration of Washington as president of the 
United States, that illustrious man tendered to Mr. Jeffer- 
son the important post of secretary of state, and the ap- 
pointment was accepted. At this period, the department 
of state had the most arduous duties to perform, and it re- 
quired the highest abilities in the secretary. Mr, Jefferson 
was first called upon by Congress to prepare a plan for 
establishing a uniform system of currency, weights and 
measures. He made an able report, but the system he re- 
commended was not adopted. He opposed the creation of 
a national bank as planned by Hamilton, and to the last 
maintained that institution to be unconstitutional. During 



THOMAS JEFFERSON. 241 

the war between Great Britain and the French repubhc, 
Jefferson was disposed to favour the latter as the policy of 
his department. But president Washington insisted upon 
a steady neutrality. 

In January, 1794, Mr. Jefferson resigned the office of 
secretary of state, and was . succeeded by Mr. Randolph. 
He resigned, with an intention of never again resuming 
any public office. " For, as to myself," says he, in a letter 
to Mr. Madison, " the subject has been thoroughly weighed 
and decided on, and my retirement from office has been 
meant from all office, high or low, without exception. My 
health is entirely broken down within the last eight months ; 
my age requires that I should place my affairs in a clear 
state ; these are sound if taken care of, but capable of con- 
siderable dangers if long neglected ; and above all things, 
the delights I feel in the society of my family, and in the 
agricultural pursuits in which I am so eagerly engaged. 
The little spice of ambition which I had in my younger 
days has long since evaporated, and I set still less store by 
a posthumous than present name. In stating to 3^ou the 
heads of reasons which have produced my determination, 
I do not mean an opening for future discussions, or that I 
may be reasoned out of it. The question is for ever closed 
with me." 

The whole time of Mr. Jefferson was now devoted to the 
education of his family, the cultivation of his estate, the 
intercourse of friendship, and the pursuit of those philo- 
sophical studies which he had so long abandoned, but to 
which he now returned with revived ardour. In the retire- 
ment of his closet, and amid such employments, the bio- 
grapher has but little to relate, and detail would be monoton- 
ous to the reader. 

When a new presidential election approached, the repub- 
lican party again selected Mr. Jefferson as its candidate. 
The federalists supported Mr. Adams and General Pinck- 



242 THOMAS JEFFERSON. 

ney, and both parties being animated by the prospect of 
success, the contest was maintained with uncommon ardour. 
But a most untoward and unlooked-for event now occurred. 
By the constitutiofi, as it existed at that period, each elector 
voted for two men without, designating which was to be 
president ; and he who obtained the greatest number of 
votes was to be president, and the nearest to him vice-pre- 
sident. Mr. Jefferson and Colonel Burr had an equal 
number of votes, and the election, according to the consti- 
tution, was to be decided by the House of Representatives. 
Here it also most singularly occurred, that the states were, 
for a long time, equally divided ; and hopes were expressed 
by his friends, and fears reluctantly admitted by his oppo- 
nents, that Mr. Burr would be elected to the office of presi- 
dent. Week after week were the people kept in intense 
solicitude, while the contest was thus maintained; again 
and again the voting went round, and the result continued 
the same; and every exertion was made to raise to the 
highest office of the nation, a man who had not received 
for that purpose a solitary vote of the people. The time 
limited by the constitution for the election of a president 
had nearly arrived, and there was danger that government 
must come to a pause, or be resolved into its original ele- 
ments. At length, after thirty-five ineffectual ballots, one 
of the representatives of the state of Maryland made public 
the contents of a letter to himself, written by Mr. Burr, in 
which he declined all pretensions to the presidency, and 
authorized him to disclaim, in his name, any competition 
with Mr. Jefferson. On this specific declaration, two federal 
members, who represented the states which had heretofore 
voted blank, withdrew, and permitted the republican 
members from those states to become a majority. Conse- 
quently, on the thirty-sixth balloting, Mr. Jefferson was 
elected president, and Colonel Burr became, of course, vice- 
president. 



THOMAS JEFFERSON. 24 S 

On the 4th of March, 1801, he took the oath of office, 
and was inaugurated president of the United States. In 
December ensuing, he sent his first message to the national 
legislature. On this occasion he departed from the practice 
which had hitherto prevailed, and instead of personally 
delivering a speech to the two houses of Congress, he 
transmitted to them a written message, which was first 
read by the Senate, and then sent to the House of Repre- 
sentatives. The example thus set, has since been followed 
by every successive executive. This message increased the 
reputation of Mr. Jefferson, and was worthy of the pen 
which drafted the Declaration of Independence. It has 
often been referred to as containing the manual of Demo- 
cracy, and the theoretical outlines of a free government. 

In forming his cabinet, president Jefferson appointed 
James Madison, secretary of state ; Albert Gallatin, secre- 
tary of the treasury ; General Dearborn, secretary of war ; 
Robert Smith, secretary of the navy; and Levi Lincoln, 
attorney-general. 

At the threshold of his administration, Mr. Jefferson was 
met by difficulties which called into requisition all the firm- 
ness of his character. He found the principal offices of the 
government, and most of the subordinate ones, in the hands 
of his political opponents. This state of things required 
prompter correctives than the tardy effects of death and 
resignation. On him, therefore, for the first time, devolved 
the disagreeable enterprise of effecting this change. The 
general principles of action which he sketched for his guide 
on this occasion, were the following : 1st, All appointments 
to civil office, during pleasure, made after the event of the 
election was certainly known to Mr. Adams, were con- 
sidered as nullities. He did not view the persons appointed 
as even candidates for the office, but replaced others without 
noticing or notifying them. 2d, Officers who had been 
guilty of official mal-conduct were proper sulyects of re- 



244 THOMAS JEFFERSON. 

moval. 3cl, Good men, to whom there was no objection 
but a difference of political principle, practised on so far 
only as the right of a private citizen would justify, were not 
proper subjects of removal, except in the case of attorneys 
and marshals. The courts being so decidedly federal, it 
w^as thought that those offices, being the doors of entrance, 
should be exercised by republican citizens, as a shield to 
the republican majority of the nation. 4th, Incumbents 
wdio had prostituted their offices to the o|)pression of their 
fellow citizens, ought, in justice to those citizens to be re- 
moved, and as examples to deter others from like abuses. 

To these means of introducing the intended change, was 
added one other in the course of his administration — to 
wit, removal for electioneering activity, or open and indus- 
trious opposition to the principles of the government. 
"Every officer of the government," said he, "may vote at 
elections according to his own conscience; but we should 
betray the cause committed to our care, were we to permit 
the influence of official patronage to be used to overthrow 
that cause." In all new aj)pointments, the president con- 
fined his choice to republicans, or republican federalists. 

The change in the public offices was the first measure of 
importance which gave a character of originality to the 
administration. Various abuses existed, dependent on 
executive indulgence, which soon called into action the re- 
forming hand of the president. In a letter of the presi- 
dent to Nathaniel Macon, member of Congress from North 
Carolina, in May, 1801, it is curious to notice the following 
laconic statement of the progress and intended course of 
reform : 

" Levees are done aw\ay. 

" The first communication to the next Congress will be, 
like all subsequent ones, by message, to which no answer 
will be expected. 

" The diplomatic establishment in Europe will be reduced 
to three ministers. 



THOMAS JEFFERSON. 245 

" The compensations to collectors depend on you, and not 
on me. 

" The army is undergoing a chaste reformation. 

" The navy will be reduced to the legal establishment by 
the last of this month. 

" Agencies in every department will be revised. 

" We shall push you to the uttermost in economizing. 

"A very early recommendation had been given to the 
postmaster general to employ no printer, foreigner, or revo- 
lutionary tory, in any of his offices. This department is 
still untouched. 

" The arrival of Mr. Gallatin, yesterday, completed the 
organization of our administration." 

Scarcely had the president entered upon the duties of his 
office, when our commerce in the Mediterranean was inter- 
rupted by the pirates. Tripoli, the least considerable of 
the BarbarjA powers, came forward with demands unfounded 
either in right or compact, and avowed the determination 
to extort them at the point of tlie sword, on our failure to 
comply peaceably before a given day. The president, with 
becoming energy, immediately put in operation such mea- 
sures of resistance as the urgency of the case demanded, 
without waiting the advice of Congress. The style of the 
challenge admitted but one answer. He sent a squadron 
of frigates into the Mediterranean, with assurances to the 
Bey of Tripoli of our sincere desire to temain in peace ; 
but with orders to j)rotect our commerce, at all hazards, 
against the threatened attack. The Bey had already 
declared war in form. His cruisers w^ere out; two had 
arrived at Gibraltar. Our commerce in the Mediterranean 
was blockaded ; and that of the Atlantic in peril. The 
arrival of the American squadron dispelled the danger. 
One of the Tripolitan cruisers having fallen in with and 
engaged a small schooner of ours, which had gone out as a 
tender to the larger vessels, was captured with a heavy 



246 THOMAS JEFFERSON. 

slaughter of her men, and without the loss of a single one 
on our part. This severe chastisement, with the extraor- 
dinary skill and bravery displayed by the Americans, 
quieted the pretensions of the Bey, and operated as a 
caution in future to that desperate community of free- 
booters. 

On the 8th of December, 1801, Mr. Jefferson made his 
first annual communication to Congress, hy message. It 
had been the uniform practice with his predecessors to 
make their first communications on the opening of Con- 
gress, by personal address, to which a formal answer was 
immediately returned by each house separately. A desire 
to impart a more popular character to the government 
by divesting it of a ceremonial which partook in some 
degree of the character of a royal pageant, a regard to 
the convenience of the legislature, the economy of their 
time, and relief from the embarrassments of immediate 
answers, induced Mr. Jefferson to adopt the mode of com- 
munication by message, to which no answer was returned. 
And his example has been followed by all succeeding presi- 
dents. 

The reduction of the land and naval forces, and of the* 
taxes, excises, and imposts ; as well as the repeal of the alien 
and sedition laws, were strongly recommended in the mes- 
sage of the president, and Congress immediately took action 
upon his suggestions. The administration was sustained 
by a large majority in the national legislature. 

The greatest measure of Mr. Jefferson's first administra- 
tion was the acquisition of Louisiana. He early became 
convinced of the absolute necessity of obtaining this terri- 
tory. "Wliilst the prosperity and sovereignty of the 
Mississippi and its waters" — we use his own language — 
"secured an independent outlet for the produce of the 
western states, and an uncontrolled navigation through 
their whole course, free from collision with other powers, 



THOMAS JEFFERSOISr. 247 

and the dangers to our peace from that source, the fertihty 
of the country, its cHmate and extent, promise, in due 
season, important aids to our treasury, an ample provision 
for our posterity, and a wide spread for the blessings of 
freedom and equal laws." This was the most important 
acquisition ever made by our country. The territory ac- 
quired included all the waters of the Missouri and J\iis- 
sissippi, and more than doubled the area of the United 
States ; while the new part was not inferior to the old in 
soil, climate, productions, and important communications. 
The sum of fifteen millions of dollars was the price paid 
for this acquisition; and on the 20th of December, 1803, 
it was formally surrendered to the United States by the 
commissioner of France. 

The period for a new election was now approaching, and 
so much had Mr. Jefferson's popularity increased during 
his administration, that he was elevated a second time 
to the presidency, by a majority which had risen from 
eight votes to one hundred and forty-eight. The vener- 
able George Clinton of the state of New York was, at 
the same time, chosen vice-president ; and both, according 
to custom, were sworn into office on the 4 th of March, 
1805.* 

Soon after the second inauguration of Mr. Jefferson, 
the conduct of Colonel Aaron Burr began to excite con- 
siderable apprehensions in the government. That talented 
but unprincipled man, having been discarded by the 
republican party on account of his opposition to Jefferson, 
and detested by the Federalists for killing Hamilton in a 
duel, had retired into the western country, brooding over 
his disappointments and searching for new fields in which 
to exercise his restless ambition. 

In the autumn of 1806, his mysterious movements 
attracted the attention of government. He had purchased 

30 * Linu. 



248 THOMAS JEFFERSON. 

and was building boats on the Ohio, and engaging men to 
descend that river. His declared purpose was to form a 
settlement on the banks of the Washita, in Louisiana ; but 
the character of the man, the nature of his preparations, ■ 
and the incautious disclosures of his associates, led to the 
suspicion that his true object was either to gain possession 
of%New Orleans, and erect into a separate government 
the country watered by the Mississippi and its branches, or 
to invade, from the territories of the United States, the rich 
Spanish province of Mexico. But whatever may have 
been the ultimate object of his plans, no sooner had Mr. 
Jefferson received information that a number of private 
individuals were combining together, arming and organizing 
themselves contrary to law, with the avowed object of 
carrying on some military expedition against the territories 
of Spain, than he took immediate measures to arrest and 
bring to justice its authors and abettors. Colonel Burr, 
finding his scheme thus discovered and defeated, and hear- 
ing, at the same time, that several persons suspected of 
being his accomplices had been arrested, fled in disguise 
from Natchez, and was apprehended on the Tombigbee. 
Two indictments were found against him, one charging 
him with treason against the United States, the other with 
preparing and commencing an expedition against the do- 
minions of Spain. He was bound over to take his trial 
on the last charge alone, the chief justice thinking there 
was not sufficient evidence of an overt act in the former. 
On the 17th of August, 1807, he was brought to trial 
before Judge Marshall, chief justice of the United States. 
The assemblage of individuals was fully proved ; but 
there was not sufficient legal evidence to establish the 
presence of Colonel Burr, or the use of any force against 
the authority of the United States, and the consequence 
was an acquittal by the jury. The people, however, be- 
lieved him guilty, and in this opinion the president largely 
shared. 



THOMAS JEFFERSON". 249 

The principal act of Mr. Jefferson's second term of ad- 
ministration was the famous "Embargo." During the 
wars waged by Great Britain against Bonaparte, the com- 
merce of the United States suffered severely, and the mer- 
chants called for some measure of redress and protection. 

" Bonajoarte having declared his purpose of enforcing 
with rigour the Berlin decree, and the British government 
having solemnly asserted the right of search and impress- 
ment, and having intimated their intention to adopt mea- 
sures in retaliation of the French decree, Mr. Jefferson 
recommended to Congress that the seamen, ships, and mer- 
chandise should be detained in port to preserve them from 
the dangers which threatened them on the ocean. A law 
laying an indefinite embargo was in consequence enacted. 
A hope to coerce the belligerent powers to return to the 
observance of the laws of nations, by depriving them of the 
benefits derived from the trade of America, was doubtless 
a concurring (and perhaps the strongest) motive for passing 
the law." 

This enactment, at the time of its passage, was received 
by many with clamour and discontent, and the distress 
which the people endured from its operation was unraitigii- 
ted and severe. But the wisdom of the measure was shortly 
manifested, and before a year had expired, overtures were 
made by the British government which indicated a dispo- 
sition to recede from or meliorate their tyrannical edicts. 
These overtures w^ere succeeded by negotiations, wdiich 
finally terminated in a repeal of the most objectionable 
features of the orders in council. 

The period had now arrived, when Mr. Jefferson was to 
enjoy that retirement and philosophic ease which he had 
so long coveted, and to which he was so ardently attached. 
Public employment, and office, had never been his choice, 
and nothing but duty to his country had ever drawn him 
from the retreats of Monticello. Believing that no person 



250 THOMAS JEFFERSON. 

should hold the office of chief magistrate longer than eight 
years, he had previously announced his intention that, when 
his service had completed the stipulated term, he should 
retire to private life. He had now reached the age of sixty- 
five years, forty of which had been employed in the arduous 
duties of public life. No one had served the country with 
more industry, zeal, and benefit, and no one had sacrificed 
more personal comfort for that purpose ; and he now retired 
from the " scene of his glory," before age had dimmed his 
eye, or impaired his usefulness.* 

In the spring of 1809, Mr. Jefferson made his last re- 
treat to the hermitage of Monticello, followed by the best 
wishes of his grateful countrymen, who could not refrain 
from an expression of admiration for his genius and long 
career of public service. The remainder of his useful life 
was spent in such labours and recreations as " befitted a 
wise man." He maintained an extensive correspondence 
with statesmen and philosophers up to the time of his death, 
and ever displayed a keen interest in all schemes tending 
to advance the happiness of humanity. The most inter- 
esting portion of his correspondence, is that which he held 
towards the close of his life, with John Adams. 

They had, says another writer, been coadjutors in former 
days of trial and danger. They had laboured side by side 
in the same field. At length the separation of parties 
estranged them from each other. Each retired from the 
helm of state to his farm, his family, and his books. Their 
early companions had almost all disappeared, and they left 
alone among a new generation. The jealousies inseparable 
from their late rivalry, neither of them wished any longer 
to feel or acknowledge, and whatever remained gradually 
gave place to the recollections of their ancient friendship. 
The infirmity of advanced age, which shows itself in the 
forgetfulness of recent events, while those of former days 

* Linn. 



THOMAS JEFFERSON". 251 

are still fresh in the mind, came in aid of their good feel- 
ings. They more readily forgot the recent estrangement, 
and more easily returned to their former attachment. There 
was only wanting something to give occasion to the renewal 
of their correspondence. It thus occurred. Two of Mr. 
Jefferson's neighbours having, by the invitation of Mr. 
Adams, passed the day with him at Braintree, he remarked 
upon the injustice done by the licentiousness of the press 
to- Mr. Jefferson, adding, " I always loved Jefferson, and 
still love him." Mr. Jefferson, in relating this anecdote, 
subjoins, " This is enough for me. I only needed this ac- 
knowledgment to revive towards him all the affections of 
the most cordial moments of our lives." The ensuing re- 
marks do honour to his candour and liberality. 

" Changing a tmigle word only in Dr. Franklin's charac- 
ter of him, I knew him to be always an honest man, often 
a great one, but sometimes incorrect and precipitate in his 
judgments ; and it is known to those who have ever heard 
me speak of Mr. Adams, that I have ever done him justice 
myself, and defended him when assailed by others, with the 
single exception as to his political opinions. But with a 
man possessing so many other estimable qualities, why 
should we be dissocialized by mere differences of opinion in 
politics, in religion, in philosophy, or in anything else. His 
opinions are as honestly formed as my own. Our different 
views of the same subject are the result of a difference in 
our organization and experience. I never withdrew from 
the society of any man on this account, although many 
have done it from me ; much less should I do it from one 
with whom I had gone through with hand and heart so 
many trying scenes. I wish, therefore, but for an appropri- 
ate occasion to express to Mr. Adams my unchanged affec- 
tions for him." 

Their former friendship thus revived, they continued to 
communicate to each other their opinions on government, 



252 THOMAS JEFFERSON. 

morals, and religion. They amused their leisure by review- 
ing the speculations of Pythagoras and Plato, of Epicurus 
and Cicero, and derived a new pleasure from the studies 
of their youth, by applying to them the results of their 
long experience. The armour which, like old soldiers after 
their dismission from honourable service, they could no 
longer use, it was their pride to keep polished, and retain 
in their sight. While the busy world around them was 
engaged in the contentions of part}^, or of business, they 
were peacefully interchanging their reminiscences of early 
life ; inquiring after their surviving and departed compan- 
ions; correcting inaccurate relations of their own history; 
or comparing their reflections on the books which had be- 
come their resource and solace. Their strongest and latest 
feelings were in favour of the liberty of men and of nations ; 
and it is a most interesting fact, that the last words of Mr. 
Adams were those of patriotic ejaculation, responsive to 
the bell which then rung in celebration of the anniversary 
of our independence ; and the last letter of Mr. Jefferson 
was an expression of a hopeless wish " to participate with 
his friends in the rejoicings on that day." The same day 
which had marked the most honourable epoch of their 
lives, was that in which Providence gave them the privilege 
to die. 

Towards the end of his days, Mr. Jefferson became pe- 
cuniarily embarrassed; but the legislature relieved his 
necessities by granting him permission to dispose of his 
estate by a lottery. He expired at ten minutes before one 
o'clock, on the 4th of July, 1826. At this time he had 
reached the age of eighty-three years, two months, and 
twenty-one days. 

In person, Mr. Jefferson was tall, erect, and well formed, 
though thin; his countenance was bland and expressive; 
his conversation fluent, imaginative, various, and eloquent. 
Few men equalled him in the faculty of pleasing in per- 



THOMAS JEFFERSON. 253 

sonal intercourse and acquiring ascendency in political con- 
nexion. His complexion was fair, and his features remark- 
ably expressive ; his forehead broad, the nose not larger 
than the common size, and the whole face square, and ex- 
pressive of deep thinking. In his conversation he was 
cheerful and enthusiastic ; and his language was singularly 
correct and vivacious. His manners were simple and unaf- 
fected, mingled, however, with much native but unobtrusive 
dignity. 

In disposition, Mr. Jefferson was full of liberality and 
benevolence. His charity was unostentatious, but boun- 
tiful ; a certain portion of his revenue was regularly applied 
to maintain and extend it ; and it has been remarked, that 
those who, since his death, have travelled in that part of 
Virginia where he resided, could not fail to be struck with 
the repeated, the grateful, and the unpremeditated tributes 
which are everywhere paid to his memory — the constant 
appeal to his opinions, the careful remembrance and relation 
of every anecdote affecting his person and his actions. In 
his family he was hospitable to a degree which caused 
poverty to throw some dark shadows over the evening of 
his life ; he was kind to his domestics, by whom it was re- 
marked, that no instance had ever occurred in which he 
had lost his temper; he was warmly attached and devoted 
to his children and relatives, whom he loved to assemble 
around him. 

As a statesman, Mr. Jefferson was, perhaps, more re- 
markable for originality of talent than any of the fathers 
of the republic, with the single exception of Dr. Franklin. 
The spirit and the creative force of the reformer were fully 
developed in him. He was unceasing in his inquiries into 
the reasons upon which institutions were founded. If he 
discovered in them injustice or a want of adaptation, he 
immediately bent his energies to overthrow them, and to 
devise others which were not so liable to objection. Ac- 



254 



THOMAS JEFFERSON. 



cordingly, he made a deep impression upon our institutions 
and governmental policy, which, it seems to us, cannot soon 
be obliterated. His memory will be dear to Americans, as 
that of the author of the Declaration of Independence, a 
patriot statesman of the revolution, and one of the ablest 
of our presidents. 




AFFAIR OF THE CHESAPEAKE. 



JAMES MADISON 



Tpie fourth President of the United States, like Wash- 
ington, Adams, and Jefferson, must be considered as one of 
the fathers of the repubhc. Although not a very promi- 
nent statesman, during the revolution Mr. Madison was 
among the most conspicuous of those who framed the con- 
stitution, and secured its ratification. He could claim the 
authorship of a large part of that noble charter, and the 
honour of having been the ablest advocate, Hamilton alone 
excepted, of all of its most valuable provisions. 

James Madison was born in Orange county, Virginia, on 
the 5th of March, 1750. His parents were respectable and 
opulent. James received the rudiments of an education 
partly at a public school, and partly in the paternal man- 
sion, under the tuition of the Rev. Thomas Martin. His 
preparatory studies being completed, he was sent to Prince- 
ton College, in New Jersey. There, in 1Y72, he took the 
degree of Bachelor of Arts. Dr. Witherspoon was then 
president of the college. For that learned gentleman, Mr. 
Madison entertained the highest respect, and, after gradua- 
ting, he pursued a course of reading under his able direc- 
tion. Mr. Madison was an exceedingly close student ; and 
his extraordinary application while at college seriously im- 
paired a constitution naturally delicate. 

Returning to Virginia, Mr. Madison began to prepare 
himself for the legal profession. But political affairs divert- 
31 257 



258 JAMES MADISON. 

ed his attention. He first distinguished himself by extra- 
ordinary efforts on behalf of the clergy of the Baptist 
denomination, who were imprisoned for preaching in defi- 
ance of prohibitory laws. He received his first public office 
in the spring of 1776, when he was chosen to a seat in the 
convention called to frame the first constitution of Vir- 
ginia. As he was extremely diffident, he made no figure 
in that body. The same year, he was chosen to a seat in 
the legislature. There, also, he was a silent member, and 
consequently, his reputation for legislative capacity suffered. 
In the following year, he was nominated for the same post, 
but lost the election. A few persons of ability and influ- 
ence, however, knew the talents, energy, and public spirit 
of the modest young man, and exerted themselves in his 
behalf; so that when the legislature convened, he was 
named a member of the executive council, in which office 
he remained until 1780, when he was called to act a part 
on a more important stage, being elected a member of the 
Continental Congress. 

Mr. Madison took his seat in the famous Congress of the 
revolution in March, 1780. He continued in that body 
three years, performing arduous services, and earning a solid 
reputation. In October, 1780, he was called upon to pre- 
pare the instructions given to Mr. John Jay, then Ameri- 
can minister in Spain, maintaining the right of the United 
States to the navigation of the Mississippi. These were 
remarkable for their clearness of statement and force of 
argument. At the end of the war, such was the general 
confidence in his ability, that he was selected to prepare an 
address to the states, appealing to them to agree to some 
plan to enable the Confederacy to meet its pecuniary* 
engagements. 

In 1784, Mr. Madison returned to Virginia, and was 
immediately elected a member of the legislature, to which 
body he was also chosen during the two succeeding years. 



JAMES MADISON. 259 

His legislative course was guided by the principles of civil 
and religious liberty. He opposed the introduction of paper 
money; and supported the laws of the code prepared by 
Jefferson and other able and liberal men. In January, 
1786, Mr. Madison procured the passage of a resolution by 
the legislature, inviting delegates from the states to meet 
at Annapolis, Md., to consider the condition of the country 
and its necessities. His was the first step taken to bring 
about a Convention to frame a Federal constitution. Gov- 
ernor Randolph, Mr. Madison, and six other men of high 
character were appointed as delegates from Virginia. 

The convention met at Annapolis in September. Five 
states were rejD resented ; the others had taken no action 
upon the invitation. John Dickinson, of Delaware, was 
elected chairman. An address, believed to have been 
written by Mr, Madison, was adopted ; copies being sent to 
the different legislatures. This paper recommended a 
general convention to frame a "Constitution of a Federal 
Government," adequate to the wants of the country. The 
various legislatures acted upon its suggestions, and dele- 
gates from the states were soon chosen, most of them 
being men of the highest ability and the most devoted 
patriotism. 

The convention assembled at Philadelphia on the 
9th of May, 1787. General Washington was elected to 
preside over its deliberations. Posterity is indebted to Mr. 
Madison for the only report of the proceedings of the con- 
vention extant. That body was in session for months. 
The debates were animated, but not violent. Hamilton, 
Madison, Gouverneur Morris, Gerry, Sherman, and C. C. 
Pinckney were the chief participants. Mr. Madison spoke 
frequently, and always with success. His opinions were 
always treated with a deep respect and consideration ; and 
their influence was generally in the ascendant. 'As a 
moderator between the ultra state-rights men and the 



260 JAMES MADISON. 

ultra Federalists, he was of invaluable service in the con- 
vention. When the substance of the labour was complete, 
the convention appointed five members, Madison being 
one, as a committee, to revise the articles of the constitu- 
tion, and, also, to prepare an address to the people of the 
United States. 

The address was a powerful appeal on behalf of the new 
constitution. Congress unanimously adopted the resolu- 
tions of the convention, recommending that the federal 
charter should be sent to the several states for their 
approval. But the great labour of the friends of the con- 
stitution was yet to be performed. In some of the states 
gifted and patriotic republicans arrayed themselves in 
opposition. But Alexander Hamilton, James Madison, 
and John Jay entered the field with pen and voice. 
They united their logic and eloquence in a series of essaj's 
entitled the Federalist, perhaps the greatest political work 
ever produced in America. These papers had a powerful 
influence upon the public mind, and furnished a vast 
amount of argument for the friends of the constitution in 
the various state conventions. 

The convention for the commonwealth of Virginia met 
in June, 1788. Eight states had already adopted the con- 
stitution, and as nine was the number required, to allow 
that instrument to go into operation, Virginia w^as con- 
sidered a field for a decisive battle. Patrick Henry was 
the champion of the opposition ; Mr. Madison was regarded 
as the leader of the federalists. Henry opposed the whole 
plan of the constitution, and contended that it was 
destructive to the freedom and best interests of the States. 
George Mason, James Monroe, and William Grayson were 
his chief supporters. Madison devoted himself particularly 
to replying to Henry ; and he was supported by Governor 
Randolph, Edmund Pendleton, John Marshall, George 
Nicholas, and General Henry Lee. The result was a 



JAMES MADISON. 261 

splendid triumph for Madison. The convention ratified 
the constitution unconditionally by a majority of eight 
votes. But resolutions were passed, recommending sundry 
amendments to supply the omission of a bill of rights. 

The constitution being adopted, and the national govern- 
ment organized, Mr. Madison was elected one of the mem- 
bers of the House of Representatives, in the 1st Congress. 
In the debates upon the measures of Washington's adminis- 
tration, Mr. Madison pursued an independent course; but 
generally agreed in opinion with Mr. Jefferson, the secre- 
tary of state. He was opposed to the creation of a national 
bank ; but in favour of protection to manufactures. When 
the war between Great Britain and the French republic 
excited bitter contests of parties in the United States, Mr. 
Madison inclined to the support of the Jeiferson Democratic 
party. Washington having issued a proclamation of neu- 
trality, the constitutional authority for which was denied, 
Hamilton thought proper to attempt its vindication in a 
series of papers, under the signature of Pacificus. Mr. 
Madison, having suspicions of monarchical designs on the 
part of the secretary of the treasury, entered the lists against 
him, and published a series of papers under the signature 
of Helvidius, in which the doctrines of Pacificus were 
analyzed with wonderful acuteness and answered with a 
great power of eloquence. Hamilton did not reply ; nor in 
any of his papers did he notice the Hel vidian animadversions. 
As constitutional arguments, these productions of Hamilton 
and Madison have never been surpassed, and they remain 
as models for American statesmen. 

At the close of the administration of Washington, Mr. 
Madison relinquished his seat in the House of Represent- 
atives. Soon afterwards, he was elected to the legislature 
of Virginia, in which body he proposed and advocated a 
series of resolutions, disa])proving the "alien and sedition 
laws." Mr. Jefferson desired that the legislature should 



262 JAMES MADISON. 

declare these laws null and void ; but the doctrine of nulli- 
fication did not find much favour with Madison. The reso- 
lutions were introduced into the legislature on the 21st of 
December, 1798. They were sent to the different states, 
and an address to the people in support of them was written 
by Mr. Madison. Although strongly denounced in some 
states, the resolutions contributed to render President Adams 
very unpopular. 

Upon the accession of Jefferson to the presidency, in 
1801, a new career was opened to his friend Madison, who 
thenceforth became his first assistant and most confidential 
adviser in the administration of the government. During 
this administration, the duties of the secretary of state were 
verj^ arduous, in consequence of the state of foreign affairs ; 
but Mr. *Madison proved himself equal to the task he had 
been chosen to perform. 

In the first wars of the French revolution. Great Britain 
had begun by straining the claim of belligerent as against 
neutral rights, beyond all the theoriesof international juris- 
prudence, and even beyond her own ordinary practice. 
There is in all war a conflict between the belligerent and 
the neutral right, which can in its nature be settled only by 
convention. And in addition to all the ordinary asperities 
of dissension between the nation at war and the nation at 
peace, she had asserted a right of man-stealing from the 
vessels of the United States. The claim of right was to 
take by force all seafaring men, her own subjects, wherever 
they were found by her naval officers, to serve their king 
in his wars. And under colour of this tyrant's right, her 
naval officers, down to the most beardless midshipman, 
actually took from the American merchant vessels which 
they visited, any seaman whom they chose to take for a 
British subject. After the treaty of November, 1794, she 
had relaxed all her pretensions against the neutral rights, 
and had gradually abandoned the practice of impressment 



JAMES MADISON. 263 

till she was on the point of renouncing it by a formal treaty 
stipulation. At the renewal of the war after the peace of 
Amiens, it was at first urged with much respect for the 
rights of neutrality, but the practice of impressment was 
soon renewed with aggravated severity, and the commerce 
of neutral nations with the colonies of the adverse belli- 
gerent was wholly interdicted on the pretence of justifica- 
tion, because it had been forbidden by the enemy herself in 
the time of peace. This pretension had been first raised 
by Great Britain in the seven years' war, but she had been 
overawed by the armed neutrality from maintaining it in 
the war of the American revolution. In the midst of this 
war with Napoleon, she suddenly reasserted the principle, 
and by a secret order in council, swept the ocean of nearly 
the whole mass of neutral commerce. Her war with France 
spread itself all over Europe, successively involving Spain, 
Italy, the Netherlands, Prussia, Austria, Russia, Denmark, 
and Sweden. Not a single neutral power remained in 
Europe — and Great Britain, after annihilating at Trafalgar 
the united naval power of France and Spain, ruling thence- 
forth with undisputed dominion upon the ocean, conceived 
the project of engrossing even the commerce with her enemy 
by intercepting all neutral navigation. These measures 
were met by corresponding acts of violence, and sophistical 
principles of national law, promulgated by Napoleon, rising 
to the summit of his greatness, and preparing his down- 
fall by the abuse of his elevation. Through this fiery 
ordeal the administration of Mr. Jefferson was to pass, and 
the severest of its tests were to be applied to Mr. Madison. 
His correspondence with the ministers of Great Britain. 
France, and Spain, and with the ministers of the United 
States to those nations during the remainder of Mr. Jef- 
ferson's administration, constitute the most important and 
most valuable materials of its history. His examination 
of the British doctrines relating to neutral trade, will here- 



264 JAMES MADISON. 

after be considered a standard treatise on the law of 
nations ; not inferior to the works of any writer upon those 
subjects since the days of Grotius, and every way worthy 
of the author of Publius and Helvidius. There is, indeed, 
in all the diplomatic papers of American statesmen, justly 
celebrated as they have been, nothing superior to this dis- 
sertation, which was not strictly official. It was composed 
amidst the duties of the department of state, in the sum- 
mer of 1806. It was published inofficially, and a copy of 
it was laid on the table of each member of Congress, at the 
commencement of the session in December, 1806. 

The controversies of conflicting neutral and belligerent 
rights, continued through the whole of Mr. Jefferson's ad- 
ministration, during the latter part of which they were 
verging rapidly to war. He had carried the policy of peace 
perhaps to an extreme. His system of defence by com- 
mercial restrictions, dry-docks, gun-boats, and embargoes, 
was stretched to its last hair's-breadth of endurance. 

Mr. Jefferson j)nrsued his policy of peace till it brought 
the nation to the borders of internal war. An embargo of 
fourteen months' duration was at last reluctantly abandoned 
by him, when it had ceased to be obeyed by the people, and 
state courts were ready to pronounce it unconstitutional. 
A non-intercourse was then substituted in its place, and the 
helm of state passed from the hands of Mr. Jefferson to 
those of Mr. Madison, precisely at the moment of this per- 
turbation of earth and sea threatened with war from abroad 
and at home, but with the principle definitively settled that 
in our intercourse with foreign nations, reason, justice, and 
commercial restrictions require live oak hearts and iron or 
brazen mouths to speak, that they may be distinctly heard, 
or attentively listened to, by the distant ear of foreigners, 
whether French or British, monarchical or republican. 

The administration of Mr. Madison was, with regard to 
its most essential principles, a continuation of that of Mr. 



JAMES MADISON. 265 

Jefferson. He too was the friend of peace, and earnestly 
desirous of maintaining it. As a last resource for the pre- 
servation of it, an act of Congress prohibited all commercial 
intercourse with both belligerents, the prohibition to be 
withdrawn from either or both in the event of a repeal by 
either of the orders and decrees in violation of neutral 
rights. France ungraciously and equivocally withdrew 
hers. Britain refused, hesitated, and at last conditionally 
withdrew hers — when it was too late — after a formal de- 
claration of war had been issued by Congress, at the recom- 
mendation of President Madison himself. 

The act declaring war was approved by the president on 
•the 18th of June, 1812. In the previous May, Mr. Madi- 
son had been nominated for re-election, and Elbridge Gerry 
was nominated by the war party for the vice-presidency. 
De Witt Clinton and Jared Ingersoll were the opposing 
candidates. 

At the commencement of the war. President Madison's 
cabinet was organized as follows : James Monroe, secretary 
of state ; Albert Gallatin, secretary of the treasury ; Wil- 
liam Eustis, secretary of war; Paul Hamilton, secretary 
of the navy; and William Pinckney, attorney-general. 
Mr. Monroe, alonej possessed the military knowledge re- 
quired for the conduct of a war. The army and navy 
were both insignificant in force. Under these circum- 
stances, it is not surprising that the first operations of the 
contest were disastrous for the Americans. 

Soon after the declaration of war. General William Hull 
invaded Canada at the head of a considerable force, and 
issued a somewhat bombastic proclamation inviting the 
inhabitants to join his army, or, at least, to submit quietly 
to his arms. The proclamation produced no considerable 
effect, and soon afterwards General Hull saw fit to return 
to Detroit. There he was attacked, in August, by an 
army of British Canadians and Indians, under General 



266 JAMES MADISON". 

Brock. The American troops were eager for a conflict and 
confident of victory. But the imbecile Hull, being seized 
with a panic, hoisted the white flag and surrendered his 
whole force without firing a gun (August 16th). The 
courage of the troops had been previously tested at Browns- 
town, where Colonel Miller defeated a much superior force 
of British and Indians. 

Not only the heroes of Brownstown, but the detachments 
then absent from the fort, the volunteers and all the provi- 
sions at Raisin, and those of no inconsiderable amount, the 
fortified posts and garrisons, and the whole territory and 
inhabitants of Michigan, were delivered over by capitula- 
tion, to the commanding general of the British forces. 
Forty barrels of powder, two thousand five hundred stand 
of arms, and an armament (consisting of twenty-five iron, 
and eight brass pieces of ordnance), the greater part of 
which had been captured from the British in the revolu- 
tionary war, were surrendered with them. 

It has been matter of conjecture, whether General Hull's 
conduct was the result of cowardice or perfidy. In his offi- 
cial despatches to the government, he attempted to defend 
his conduct upon grounds with which they were not satisfied 
— and which could not be proved befoi-e the court martial, 
by whom, after being exchanged for thirty British prisoners, 
he was tried. After an investigation of all the facts, the 
court declined making a decision on the charge of treason, 
which was alleged against him, but said they did not 
believe, from anything which had come before them, that 
he had been guilty of that act. On the second charge, 
for cowardice — and the third for neglect of duty and un- 
officerlike conduct, they condemned him. A sentence of 
death was passed upon him, but in consideration of his 
revolutionary services and his advanced age, he was ear- 
nestly recommended to the mercy of the president, who 
remitted the sentence, but directed a general order to be 



89S 



n / / 



"laijpai 







JAMES MADISON. 269 

issued, by which his name was struck from the rolls of the 
army. 

Contemporaneous with the disaster at Detroit, was a 
succession of brilliant achievements on the ocean, paral- 
leled perhaps, but never yet surpassed; the intelligence 
of which entirely dispelled the temporary gloom which 
pervaded the minds, and filled with grief the hearts of 
the American people. At the commencement of hostili- 
ties, such of the United States vessels of war, whose 
equipments were entire, had orders to proceed immedi- 
ately to sea. A squadron of three frigates, one brig, and 
one sloop of war, sailed on the 21st of June (1812) from 
New York, in quest of several of the enemy's frigates, known 
to be at that time cruising off the entrance to that harbour. 
On the 3d of July, the frigate Essex, Captain Porter, went 
to sea from the same port ; and the Constitution, Captain 
Hull, sailed from the Chesapeake Bay on the 12th. The 
brigs Nautilus, Viper, and Vixen, were at the same time 
cruising off the coast; and the sloop-of-war Wasp was at 
sea, on her return from France. 

After escaping from a British fleet, the frigate Constitu- 
tion, on the 18th of August, encountered the British frigate 
Guerriere of nearly equal force, and commanded by Captain 
Dacres, and after a close and destructive action reduced her 
to a wreck. Captain Hull, the brave and skilful command- 
er, gained the highest honour by this signal victory. The 
first year of the war was rendered glorious for the young 
navy of America by other victories. On the 18th of 
October, the sloop-of-war Wasp, Captain Jones, captured 
the British brig Frolic ; and on the 25th of the same month 
the frigate United States, Captain Stephen Decatur, 
captured the British frigate Macedonian, after a well- 
contested battle. On the 30th of December, the Constitu- 
tion, while commanded by Captain Bainbridge, captured 
the British frigate Java, being the second splendid achieve- 



270 JAMES MADISON. 

ment of this gallant frigate, the pride of Americans. In 
all these actions, the superior gunnery of the American 
vessels was evident ; and the loss of the enemy was very 
severe. 

Tlie presidential election in 1812 resulted in the choice 
of Mr. Madison and Mr. Gerry, by a large majority. The 
elections for members of Congress resulted in the decisive 
triumph of the administration. But it was evident that 
the opposition was very powerful in the New England 
States. There the war was denounced as unnecessary, 
iniquitous, and destructive to the interests of the country. 
Soon after Mr. Madison's re-election, some changes were 
made in the cabinet. William Jones, of Pennsylvania, 
was appointed secretary of the navy, and General John 
Armstrong secretary of war. The former occupants of 
these posts had resigned. 

The surrender of Hull laid the north-western frontier 
open to the ravages of the Britii^h and Indians. But great 
ellbrts were made to bring a new army into the field, and 
General William Henry Harrison, a favourite commander 
in the west, was appointed commander-in-chief in that 
quarter. A large and efficient volunteer force was soon in 
the field. Several expeditions into the Indian country 
were undertaken, and considerable injury was inflicted 
upon the savages. Fort Harrison, a frontier post, was 
successfully defended by Captain Zachary Taylor against a 
large body of Indians ; and Fort Wayne resisted a similar 
attack. The north-western army was now divided into 
two portions, one commanded by Harrison, and the other 
by Winchester. The British were compelled to evacuate 
Fort Defiance, and the American commander-in-chief then 
prepared his plans for the recovery of the whole north- 
western teritory. 

Whilst these events were transpiring in the western 
department of the union, dispositions had been made, and 



JAMES MADISON. 271 

troops collected at the different stations along the Niagara 
river ; from the Lake Erie to the Lake Ontario ; and beyond 
the latter, along the shore of the St, Lawrence. Excursions 
from the American to the British shores of the rivers, had 
been frequently made, and on some occasions, vs^ere followed 
by smart skirmishes. The chief command of these forces 
was given to Major-General Dearborn. The immediate 
command of the troops on the Niagara, to Major-General 
Van Rensselaer, of the militia of the state of New York. 
Brigadier-General Smyth was stationed at Black Rock. 
The troops on the St. Lawrence were principally garrisoned 
at Ogdensburg, and commanded by Brigadier-General 
Brown, also of the New York militia. 

Some daring and destructive exploits of the Americans 
provoked the enemy into an attempt upon Ogdensburg. 

Opposite to this is situated the Canadian village of Pres- 
cott, before which the British had a strong line of breast- 
works. On the 2d of October (1812) they opened a heavy 
cannonading on the town from their batteries, and con- 
tinued to bombard it with little intermission until the 
night of the 3d : one or two buildings only were injured. 
On Sunday, the 4th, having prepared forty boats, with 
from ten to fifteen armed men in each, they advanced with 
six pieces of artillery, to storm the town. General Brown 
commanded at Ogdensburg in person, and when the enemy 
had advanced within a short distance, he ordered his 
troops to open a warm fire upon them. The British, 
nevertheless, steadily approached the shore, and kept up 
their fire for two liours ; during which, they sustained the 
galling fire of the Americans, until one of their boats was 
taken, and two others so shattered, that their crews were 
obliged to abandon them; they then relinquished the 
assault, and fled to Prescott. 

The troops along the Niagara, under the command of 
General Van Rensselaer, were eager to engage in some enter- 



272 JAMES MADISON. 

prise ; and, after much persuasion the general was induced 
to attempt an offensive movement against Queenstown. 
Early on the morning of the 13th of October, detachments, 
under Colonel Christie and Van Rensselaer, were embarked. 
The British at Queenstown received them with a tremendous 
fire, through which, however, they bravely advanced to the 
attack. The fort was carried, and the British were driven 
from the field. But a rally was soon made. Reinforcements 
were received on both sides. Victory inclined in favour 
of the Americans, although they were inferior in num- 
bers. At this critical moment, the troops on the American 
side, being seized with a panic, refused to cross the river to 
aid their brave comrades. All the threats and persuasions 
of General Van Rensselaer were in vain. In the mean time 
the British were greatly reinforced by the arrival of General 
Brock, and being hardly pressed on all sides, the Ameri- 
can detachment was obliged to surrender. The loss was 
severe on both sides in this well fought battle. The gallant 
general of the British, Brock, was among the slain. The 
American officers won the highest praises from their country- 
men by their determined bravery. 

General Smyth now succeeded Van Rensselaer in com- 
mand of the army on the Niagara. Having issued a pro- 
clamation calculated to excite the patriotic spirit of the 
citizens, he was soon at the head of a considerable army. 
Active operations were innnediately commenced. Every 
British battery between Chippewa and Fort Erie was car- 
ried, the cannon spiked or destroyed, sixteen miles of the 
Canadian frontier were laid waste and deserted, and at day- 
break on the 28 th of November, the batteries on the Ameri- 
can side were ready to cover the embarkation of the army. 
Several attempts were made to effect this embarkation. 
But the enemy appeared in force, and the elements inter- 
fered; and General Smyth abandoned the expedition for 



CI7. 



IZ 




JAMES MADISON. 275 

the season. This excited great indignation among the troops 
and throughout the country. The highest expectations of 
the Americans had been disappointed. 

The year 1813 opened with disasters on the north-western 
frontier. Exasperated at the success of the American 
vokmteer troops, in their repeated assaults upon the Indian 
jiosts along the north-western frontier, the enemy resolved 
upon an immediate movement of his combined forces to 
the village of Frenchtown, with a view to intercept the 
American expedition, in its further approaches towards 
Detroit. In the event of this movement, which was now 
every day looked for, the inhabitants of Frenchtown were 
apprehensive of being massacred, and they therefore im- 
plored General Winchester to march to their protection, 
though the troops at that time under his command were 
far inferior in numbers to the collected force by which in 
all probability they would be assailed. Without any pre- 
vious concert with General Harrison as to the plan of 
operations, and without his knowledge or authority. Gene- 
ral Winchester, yielding to the solicitation of the inhabit- 
ants, determined upon marching with his small force (then 
reduced to 800 men, by the discharge of those regiments 
whose term of service had expired) to prevent, if possible, 
the destruction of the village, and the threatened murder 
of its inhabitants. On the 17th, Lieutenant-Colonel Wil- 
liam Lewis was ordered to proceed with a detachment to 
Presque-isle, where he w^as to await the arrival of another 
detachment, under Lieutenant-Colonel Allen, which would 
soon after be followed by the main body of the troops. On 
the morning of the 18th, the two detachments concentrated 
at Presque-isle ; when Colonel Lewis, having been informed 
that an advanced party of the British and Indians, amount- 
ing to about 600, were already encamped at Frenchtown, 
immediately determined on attacking them. A rapid march 
brought him within their view at about 3 o'clock. At three 



276 JAMES MADISOJS". 

miles distance lie was apprised of tlieir being prepared to 
receive him, and, lest they should sally out and suddenly 
encounter him, he arranged his men in order of battle, and 
approached with caution to the margin of the river. The 
whole body came within a quarter of a mile of the enemy. 
The river only separated them. The hne was then dis- 
played, and the passage of the river attempted, under a fire 
from a howitzer, which the enemy directed against the 
volunteers, with little effect. The line, remaining compact, 
marched across the ice to the opposite shore, at the very 
moment when a signal was given for a general charge. 
Majors Graves and Madison were instantly ordered to assail 
the houses and picketing, in and about which the enemy 
had collected and arrayed his cannon, before this charge 
could be made. The two battalions advanced with great 
velocity, under an incessant shower of bullets, carried the 
picketing with ease, dislodged the British and Indians, and 
drove them into the wood. Lieutenant-Colonel Allen made 
a simultaneous movement upon the enemy's left, then at a 
considerable distance from the remainder of his troopSj and 
after one or two spirited charges, compelled him to break, 
and drove him more than a mile ; after which, he took 
shelter in the same wood to which the right had retired. 
Here the two wings concentrated, and, being covered by 
the fences of several enclosed lots, and a group of houses, 
with a thick and brushy wood, and a quantity of fallen 
timber in the rear, they made a stand with tlieir howitzer 
and small arms. Colonel Allen wa.s still advancing with 
the right wing of the American detachment, and was ex- 
posed to the fire of the whole body of the enemy. Majors 
Graves and Madison were then directed to move up, with 
the left and the centre, to make a diversion in favour of the 
right. Their fire had just commenced, when the right wing 
advanced upon the enemy's front. A sanguinary fight im- 
mediately followed : the houses were desperately assailed ; 
the British, who were stationed behind the fences, vigor- 



JAMES MADISON. 277 

onsly charged upon ; and their whole body obliged a third 
time to fly. Rapid pursuit was instantly given to them. 
The British and Indians drew the Americans into the wood, 
in their rear, and again rallying their forces, several times 
intrepidly attempted, under the direction of Major Reynolds, 
to break the American line. The fight became close and 
extremely hot, upon the right wing, but the whole line 
maintained its ground, repulsed every attempt, followed up 
the enemy each time as he fell back, and kept him two 
miles on the retreat under a continual charge. At length, 
after having obstinately contended against the American 
arms upwards of three hours, the British and Indians were 
entirely dispersed, and carrying off all their wounded, and 
as many of their dead as they could collect, they retired 
from the field, leaving fifteen of their warriors behind. 
The American loss amounted to twelve killed and fifty-five 
wounded. Colonel Lewis encamped upon the same ground, 
which had been previously occupied by the enemy. He 
had captured some public property, and protected the in- 
habitants thus far from the apprehended cruelty of the 
Indians, and he now made preparations to maintain his 
position until he should be joined hy General Winchester. 

On the 29th January, the troops under General Win- 
chester arrived, and when the whole were concentrated, 
they did not exceed 750 men. Six hundred were posted 
in pickets, and 150 composing the right wing were en- 
camped in an open field. On the morning of the 22d, at 
reveille, a combined force under Tecumseh and Colonel Proc- 
tor, of 2100 men, attacked the encampment. The alarm 
gun was immediately fired, and the troops ready for the 
reception of the assailants. The attack commenced with 
a heavy fire of small arms, and the discharge of six pieces 
of artillery, directed immediately at the temporary breast- 
work behind which the left wing was stationed. The right 
wing was attacked with great violence, and sustained the 



278 JAMES MADISON. 

conflict about twenty minutes, but being outnumbered and 
overpowered, was obliged to retreat across the river. Two 
companies, of fifty men each, sallied out of the breastwork 
to their assistance, but retreated with them. A large body 
of the Indians had been stationed in the rear of the encamp- 
ment, before the attack commenced, who either made 
prisoners of, or cut off, the retreating party. The left 
wing maintained its ground within the pickets. Three 
furious onsets were made upon it by the British 41st, each 
of which was received with distinguished coolness, and 
each of which terminated in the repulse of the enemy. In 
the desperate resistance which was made to the charges of 
this regiment, thirty of its men were killed, and between 
90 and 100 wounded. When the right wing was dis- 
covered to be retreating, every effort was used to form 
them in some order of action, either to repel the pursuers, 
or to regain the temporary breastwork, from behind which, 
the remaining part of the troops were still gallantly 
defending themselves. General Winchester's head quarters 
were several hundred yards from the encampment, he 
therefore was not in the first of the engagement, but he 
had no sooner arrived at the ground, then he, Colonel 
Lewis, and some others, who were attempting to rally the 
flying right wing, were taken prisoners. The remainder 
of the battle was fought in confusion, and was rather a 
proof of the bravery of the Americans, than of any regard 
which they had for the order of the fight. They saw the 
great disparity of force, and knew how much their own 
had been weakened by the destruction of the right wing. 
But they continued to repel every charge of the assailants, 
until eleven o'clock, when an order was received, by a flag 
from the enemy, by which it appeared, that General Win- 
chester was assured, that unless the troops of his command 
were immediately surrendered, the buildings in Frencli- 
town would be set on fire, and that no responsibility would 



JAMES MADISON. 279 

be taken for the conduct of the savages, who composed the 
largest part of the enemy's force : that to save the Uves of 
the remaining portion of his brave troops, he had agreed 
to surrender them prisoners of war, on condition of their 
being protected from the savages, of their being allowed to 
retain their private property, and of having their side arms 
returned to them. Thirty-five officers, and 487 non-com- 
missioned officers and privates were accordingly surrendered, 
after having fought with small arms, against artillery, for 
six hours ; and being all that time surrounded by Indians 
resorting to their usual terrific yells. The loss of the 
Americans was twenty-two officers, and 275 non-commis- 
sioned officers and privates killed and missing, and three 
officers and twenty-two privates wounded, who were among 
the prisoners surrendered. The enemy's loss, except that 
of the 41st regulars, could not be ascertained, every means 
being used to prevent a discovery. It has been supposed, 
however, that it was little less than that of the Americans. 
Colonel Proctor afterwards stated it, in his official com- 
munication, to be twenty-four killed, and 158 wounded. 

The events which followed the surrender of the Ameri- 
can arms, were of such a nature as to make the heart of 
man recoil from their recital, and to deprive their recorder, 
at a more distant day, of that degree of temperance, which 
ought ever to be inseparable from candid and impartial 
narration. 

The prisoners w^ere handed over to the tender mercies of 
the savages, and during Proctor's retreat, a large number 
of them were plundered, slaughtered, and mangled, with 
circumstances too horrible to be related. The massacre at 
the river Raisin stands in history as a foul blot upon the 
memory of Proctor, whom the British government thought 
proper to promote for his services on this occasion. 

No event of any consequence occurred during the re- 
mainder of the winter. The movement of General Win- 



280 JAMES MADISON. 

Chester was entirely subversive of General Harrison's plans, 
and so contrary to his arrangements, that the whole system 
of organization was again to be gone over. General Har- 
rison, therefore, left the troops strengthening the posts of 
Fort Meigs, Upper Sandusky, and Fort Stephenson, whilst 
he returned to Ohio, to consult with the governor, to ac- 
celerate the march of the reinforcements, and to expedite 
the transportation of additional stores. He had not been 
long absent from Fort Meigs, before the garrison was threat- 
ened with an attack. New levies were hastily made from 
Ohio and Kentucky, but as they did not arrive in time to 
resist the enemy, now collecting in large numbers in the 
neighbourhood, the Pennsylvania brigade voluntarily ex- 
tended its term of service, which had just then expired. 
General Harrison was apprised of this circumstance by 
despatch, and returned wdth all possible expedition to the 
garrison. He arrived on the 20th April, 1813, and made 
instant preparation for an approaching siege. The fort was 
situated on a commanding eminence, and well supplied with 
every necessary munition of war; but General Harrison 
being desirous of putting his men in the best possible state 
of security, was every day erecting fortifications of different 
descriptions. The troops in the garrison were animated 
and zealous in the cause of their country, and their exer- 
tions without parallel. On the 28th, Captain Hamilton was 
sent out with a patrolling party. About three miles down 
the river he discovered the enemy in great force, approach- 
ing Fort Meigs, and immediately communicated his dis- 
covery to the general. An express was then sent to Gene- 
ral Green Clay, who commanded a brigade of twelve hun- 
dred Kentuckians, with an order for his immediate march 
to Fort Meigs. A few British and a body of Indians com- 
menced a very brisk fire from the opposite shore, but the 
distance was too great to do injury. Their fire was re- 
turned from two eighteen-pounders, and they retired and 



JAMES MADISON. 281 

concealed themselves from the view of the fort. In the 
evening, the enemy crossed the river in boats, and selected 
the best situations about the fort, to throw up works for the 
protection of their battering cannon. The garrison was 
completely surrounded, and preparations were active, upon 
one side to storm the fort, and on the other to repel the 
most vigorous assault. Early on the morning of the 29th, 
the Indians fired into the fort with their rifles ; a constant 
firing was kept up on both sides during the whole day. 
Several men in the garrison were slightly wounded, and a 
number of the enemy killed. The British batteries had 
been so far constructed during the night, that sufficient 
protection was aiforded to him to work by dayhght. Num- 
bers of shot were thrown into the breastworks to impede 
their progress, but before night, they had three batteries 
erected, two with four embrasures each, and one bomb bat^ 
tery. On the morning of the 30th, the besiegers were dis- 
covered to have extended their batteries, and to be pre- 
paring them for the cannon. 

General Harrison having a suspicion that the enemy in- 
tended to surprise and storm the garrison in its rear, from 
the circumstance of a number of boats having repeatedly 
crossed from the old British garrison to the side on which 
stood the American fort, each loaded with men ; he gave 
orders for one-third of the troops to be constantly on guard, 
and the remainder to sleep with their muskets in their 
arms, and to be in readiness to fly to their posts at any 
moment. The Indians occupied all the advantageous posi- 
tions round the fort, and to this and many other discouraging 
circumstances, was added the want of water, which was 
suppUed only from the river, whence a few men each night 
were obliged to obtain enough for the garrison for the suc- 
ceeding day. This they did at an imminent risk of their 
lives, the Indians being always on the alert. 

General Clay had put his troops in motion, as soon as he 



282 JAMES MADISON. 

received General Harrison's orders of the 28th ultimo, and 
had marched with great expedition. The officer who had 
been sent with the despatch, arrived at the fort on the 5th, 
with forty-seven men of General Clay's brigade, and in- 
formed General Harrison that the whole detachment was 
within a few hours' march. Orders were immediately sent 
to General Clay, to land 800 men on the opposite shore, 
to storm the enemy's batteries, spike his cannon, and 
destroy his carriages, whilst a sortie would be circuitously 
made from the fort, for the purpose of attacking his new 
works at the same instant, and compelling him to raise the 
siege. Colonel Dudley was charged with the execution of 
this order, and Colonel Miller, of the 19th U. S. infantry, 
was to command the sortie. Colonel Dudley landed his 
men from the boats in which they had descended the river, 
and marched them resolutely up to the mouth of the British 
cannon. The four batteries were instantly carried, 11 guns 
spiked, and the British regulars and Canadian militia put 
to flight. In pursuance of General Harrison's orders, 
Colonel Dudley, after having effected the object of his 
landing, ought to have crossed the river to Fort Meigs, but 
his men were so much elated at the success of their first 
battle, that they became desirous of pursuing and capturing 
the retreating enemy. An immense body of Indians, at 
that time marching to the British camp, were met by the 
regulars as they retired. With these they formed, and put- 
ting the Indians in ambush, they made a feint to draw 
Colonel Dudley's men into the woods, in which they too 
well succeeded. The Indians came from their ambuscade, 
and attacked the brave but indiscreet Kentuckians. A 
severe engagement took place, which terminated in the 
death or capture of almost the whole detachment, and 
which was followed by the same kind of massacre, though 
not to the same extent, that succeeded the surrender at 
Raisin. The British intercepted the retreat of Colonel 



JAMES MADISON. 283 

Dudley to the river, where he would have been protected 
by the guns of Fort Meigs, and only 150 men, out of 800, 
effected their escape : forty-five were tomahawked, and 
Colonel Dudley, their gallant leader, was among the killed. 
The remainder of General Clay's brigade assailed a body 
of Indians in the wood, near the fort, and would have been 
also drawn into an ambush, had not General Harrison 
ordered a party of dragoons to sally out, and protect their 
retreat to the fort. 

The contemplated sortie was intended to have been 
simultaneous with the attack on the opposite side of the 
river; but the impetuosity of Colonel Dudley's troops de- 
feated this project, and Colonel Miller, with part of the 
19th, and a body of militia, in all, 350 men, sallied forth, 
after the Indians were apprised of the attack upon the old 
batteries. He assaulted the whole line of their works, 
which was defended, as has since been ascertained, by 200 
regulars, 150 militia, and 400 or 500 Indians, and after 
several brilliant and intrepid charges, succeeded in driving 
the enemy from his principal batteries, and in spiking the 
cannon. He then returned to the fort with forty-two pri- 
soners, among whom were two lieutenants. 

On the 6 th, hostilities seemed to have ceased on both 
sides. The besieged sent down a flag by Major Hukill, to 
attend to the comforts of the American wounded and pri- 
soners, which returned with the British Major Chambers, 
between whom and the garrison, some arrangements were 
made about sending home the prisoners by Cleveland. On 
the 7 th, there was a continuation of bad weather. Fla^-s 
were passing to and from the two armies during the whole 
day, and arrangements were entered into, by which the 
American militia were to be sent to Huron, to return 
home by that route, and the Indians were to relinquish 
their claim to the prisoners taken on the opposite shore, 
and to receive in exchange for them a number of Wyan- 



284 JAMES MADISON. 

dots, who had been captured in the sallies of the 5th. 
During the 8th, the exchange and intercourse of flags 
continued, and a promise was made by the British to fur- 
nish General Harrison with a list of the killed, wounded, 
and prisoners, which, however, was not complied with. 
On the 9 th, the enemy was observed to be abandoning his 
works. 

Thus terminated a siege of thirteen days, in which the 
British commander. General Proctor, promised the Indian 
allies, that the American garrison should be reduced, and 
its defenders delivered over to them as prisoners of war. 
Eighteen hundred shells and cannon balls had been fired 
into the fort, and a continual discharge of small arms had 
been kept up, yet the American loss was only 81 killed and 
189 wounded; 17 only of the former during the siege, the 
remainder in the sortie, and the different assaults of the 
oth. Of the latter, 124 were wounded in the sortie, and 
66 during the siege. The loss of the United States regulars 
was 156 in killed and wounded; that of the Kentucky and 
Ohio militia, and the twelve months' volunteers, 114. But 
Kentucky, as on other occasions, suffered the most severely, 
her loss in killed and wounded amounting to 72. 

Offensive operations were now for a time suspended. 
Both parties were preparing naval forces on Lake Erie. 
It was arranged that until these were completed, the 
American troops were to remain at Fort Meigs and San- 
dusky^. General Clay was left in command of Fort Meigs. 

Arrangements having been entered into between the 
Ameuican and British commissaries to that effect, a mutual 
exchange of prisoners took place, which restored to the 
army of the United States all the distinguished officers who 
had fallen into the hands of the enemy during the campaign 
of 1812. Vigorous preparations had, in the mean time, been 
making by the northern army and the army of the centre 
for opening the campaign of 1813. Reinforcements of regu- 



JAMES MADISON". . 285 

lars from most of the recruiting districts, and the neces- 
sary supplies of provisions and miUtary equipments, had 
been forwarded with the utmost celerity, and everything 
seemed to promise a successful issue to the contemplated 
operations. 

Reinforcements were now every day arriving, and the 
concentration of a large force at Sackett's Harbour, was 
effected about the middle of April (1813). Many of the 
troops from Champlain, and the shores of the St. Lawrence, 
were ordered to that point ; and it was confidently expected 
that the campaign would be commenced by the invasion of 
Canada, in or before the following month of May. Orders 
had been given to Commodore Chauncey, by the navy de- 
partment, to receive on board the squadron the command- 
ing general, Dearborn, and any force which he might destine 
to proceed against the posts on the British Niagara frontier. 
A plan had been conceived and organized by General Dear- 
born, by which, in co-operation with the fleet, he was to 
storm and to carry the works at Little York, the capital of 
Upper Canada, and to proceed thence to the assault of Fort 
George, the great bulwark of that country. 

Agreeably to a previous arrangement with the commo- 
dore. General Dearborn and his suite, with a force of seven- 
teen hundred men, embarked on the 22d and 23d of April, 
but the prevalence of a violent storm prevented the sailing 
of the squadron until the 25th. On that day it moved into 
Lake Ontario, and having a favourable wind, arrived safely 
at 7 o'clock, on the morning of the 27th, about one mile to 
the westward of the ruins of Fort Toronto, and two and a 
half from the town of York. The execution of that part 
of the plan which applied immediately to the attack upon 
York, was confided to Colonel Pike, of the 15th regiment, 
who had then been promoted to the rank of a brigadier- 
general, and the position which had been fixed upon for 
landing the troops, was the site of the old fort. The ap- 
34 



286 JAMES MADISON. 

proacli of the fl^et being discovered from the enemy's garri- 
son, General Sheaffe, the British commandant, hastily 
collected his whole force, consisting of upwards of 750 
regulars and militia and 100 Indians, and disposed them 
in the best manner to resist the landing of the American 
force. 

Major Forsythe and his riflemen, in several large hatteaux, 
were in the advance. The enemy being within a few feet 
of the water, and completely masked by the thickness of a 
copse, commenced a galling fire of musketry and rifle. 
Major Forsythe determined upon making that part of the 
shore on which the enemy's principal strength was stationed, 
and desired his men to rest a moment on their oars, until 
his riflemen should return the shot. General Pike was at 
this moment hastening the debarkation of the infantry, 
when, as he was standing on the ship's deck, he observed 
the pause of the boats in advance, and springing into that 
which had been reserved for himself and his staff, he called 
to them to jump into the boat with him, ordered Major 
King to follow him instantly with three companies of that 
regiment, and pushed for the Canadian shore. Before he 
reached it, Forsythe had landed, and was already engaged 
with the principal part of the British and Indian force, 
under the immediate command of General Sheaffe. He 
contended with them nearly half an hour. The infantry 
under Major King, the light artillery under Major Eustis, 
the volunteer corps commanded by Colonel M'Clure, and 
about thirty men who had been selected from the 15th at 
Plattsburg, trained to the rifle, and designed to act as a 
small corps of observation, under Lieutenant Riddle, then 
landed in rapid succession, and formed in platoons. Gene- 
ral Pike took command of the first, and ordering the whole 
body to prepare for a charge, led them on to the summit of 
the bank, from which the British grenadiers were pouring 
down a volley of musketry and rifle shot. The ad\^ance 



883 




JAMES MADISON. 289 

of the American infantry was not to be withstood, they 
remained undisputed masters of the ground. 

A fresh front, however, was presented by the British at 
a distance, which gave way and retired to the garrison as 
soon as the American troops were again formed, by Major 
King, for the charge. The whole body of the troops being 
now Landed, orders were given by General Pike to form in 
platoons, and to march in that order to the enemy's works. 
As the column emerged from the woods, and came imme- 
diately in front of the enemy's first battery, two or three 
twenty-four pounders were opened upon it, but without auy 
kind of eifect. The column moved on, and the enemy 
retreated to his second battery. The guns of the first 
were immediately taken, and Lieutenant Riddle, having at 
this moment come up with his corps, to deliver the prisoners 
which he had made in the woods, was ordered to proceed 
to take possession of the second battery, about 100 yards 
ahead, the guns of which Lieutenant Fraser, aid-de-camp 
to the general, reported to have been spiked by the enemy, 
whom he discovered retreating to the garrison. General 
Pike then led the column up to the second battery, when 
he halted to receive the captured ammunition, and to learn 
the strength of the garrison. But as every appearance 
indicated the evacuation of the barracks, he suspected the 
enemy of an intention to draw him within range of the 
shot, and then suddenly to show himself in great force. 
Lieutenant Riddle was sent forward with his corps of 
observation, to discover if there were any, and what num- 
ber of troops, within the garrison. The barracks were 
three hundred yards distant from the second battery, and 
whilst this corps was engaged in reconnoitering. General 
Pike, after removing a wounded prisoner from a dangerous 
situation, had seated himself upon a stump, and commenced 
an examination of a British sergeant who had beeu taken 
in the woods. Riddle, having discovered that the enemy 



290 JAMES MADISON. 

had abandoned the garrison, was about to return with this 
information, when the magazine, which was situated out- 
side the barracli yard, blew up, with a tremendous and 
awful explosion, passed over Riddle and his party, without 
injuring one of his men, and killed and wounded General 
Pike and 2G0 of the column. The severity of General Pike's 
wounds disabled him from further service, and the command 
of the troops devolved upon Colonel Pearce, of the 16th 
regiment, who sent a demand to the town of York for an 
immediate surrender. The plan of the contemplated ope- 
rations was known only to General Pike, and, as General 
Dearborn had not yet landed, the future movements of the 
troops would depend upon the will of their new commander. 
He ordered them immediately to form the column, and to 
march forward and occupy the barracks, which Major For- 
sythe, who had been scouring the adjoining wood, had 
already entered. Meanwhile, the British regulars were 
retreating across the Don, and destroying the bridges in 
their rear. After the explosion. Lieutenant Eiddle with 
his party, then reinforced by thirty regulars, under Lieu- 
tenant Horrell of the 16th, pursued the enemy's route, and 
annoyed his retreating guard from the wood. This was 
the only pursuit which was made. 

Colonel Pearce then marched towards the town, which 
was distant three-quarters of a mile. About half way 
between York and the garrison, the column was inter- 
cepted by several officers of the Canadian militia, who 
had come out with terms of capitulation. Whilst these 
were discussing, the enemy was engaged in destroying 
the military storehouse, and a large vessel of war then 
on the stocks, and which in three days might have been 
launched, and added to the American squadron on On- 
tario. 

At four o'clock in the afternoon, the Americans were 
in possession of the town, and terms of capitulation were 



JAMES MADISON. 291 

agreed ui^on, by which, notwithstanding the severe loss 
which the army and the nation had sustained by the 
death of the general ; the unwarrantable manner in 
which that loss was occasioned; and the subtlety with 
which the militia colonels offered to capitulate at a dis- 
tance from the town, so that the column might be detained 
until General Sheaffe should escape, and the destruction 
of the public property be completed, although one of its 
articles stipulated for its delivery into the hands of the 
Americans ; the militia and inhabitants were freed from 
all hardship, and not only their persons and property, but 
their legislative hall and other public buildings were pro- 
tected. 

In the action, the loss of the American army was trifling ; 
but in consequence of the explosion, it was much greater 
than the enemy's loss in killed and wounded. Fourteen 
were killed and 32 wounded in battle, and 38 were killed 
and 222 wounded by the explosion, so that the total Ame- 
rican loss amounted to 320 men. Among those who fell 
by the explosion, besides the gallant Pike, were seven 
captains, seven subalterns, one aide-de-camp, one acting aid, 
and one volunteer aid. The enemy's loss in killed and 
wounded, amounted to 200 — in prisoners 550 — fifty of 
whom were regulars — being altogether 750 men. His 
wounded were left in the houses on the road leading to, 
and in the neighbourhood of York, and were attended to 
by the American army and navy surgeons. The prisoners 
were all paroled, and the troops withdrawn from York 
immediately after its capture. 

The next event of importance upon this part of the 
frontier, was the attack on Fort George by the fleet of 
Commodore Chauncey and the army of General Dearborn. 

On the 26th of May, the commodore reconnoitred the 
position at which the troops were to be landed, and at 
night sounded the shore, and placed buoys at stations for 



292 JAMES MADISON. 

the small vessels. The weather, which had been for 
several days extremely boisterous, now moderated, and it 
was agreed that a conjoint attack, by the army and navy, 
should be made on the following morning. A sufficient 
quantity of boats, to land the troops in the order of attack, 
had been by this time provided, and a considerable number 
which had been for several days building at the Five Mile 
Meadows, above the fort, were now in readiness to be 
launched into the Niagara river. On the afternoon of the 
26th, the enemy, having observed the preparations for 
launching the boats, opened a small battery, which had 
been erected immediately opposite the meadows, for the 
purpose of annoying the workmen and of destroying the 
boats. The fire from this battery produced a premature 
cannonade between Forts George and Niagara, which was 
followed by a bombardment between all the batteries in the 
neighbourhood of the two forts. The battery which stood 
directly opposite Fort George, did great injury to that 
garrison. No block-house, or wooden building of any 
description, in or near that fort, escaped injury; whilst on 
the American side, not the most trifling loss was sustained. 
The boats, in the mean time, succeeded in passing Fort 
George, and proceeded to the encampment at Four Mile 
Creek. On the same night, all the artillery, and as many 
troops as could possibly be accommodated, w^ere put on 
board the Madison, the Oneida, and the Lady of the Lake. 
The remainder were to embark in the boats, and to follow 
the fleet. At three o'clock on the morning of the 27th, 
signal was made for the fleet to weigh anchor. In con- 
sequence of the calmness of the weather, the schooners 
were obliged to resort to sweeps to attain their positions. 

The disposition was skilfully effected, and each vessel was 
within musket-shot of the shore. At four o'clock, Generals 
Dearborn and Lewis, with their suites, went on board the 
Madison, and by that hour the troops were all embarked. 



JAMES MADISON. 293 

The wliole number amounted to more than 4000. The 
batteries were now playing upon each other from the 
opposite sides of the river, and the troops advanced at 
intervals in three brigades. The advance was led by 
Colonel Scott. 

When the advance, which consisted of about 500 men, 
was approaching the point of landing, successive volleys of 
musketry were poured upon it by *1200 regulars, stationed 
in a ravine. A brisk exchange of shot w^as kept up for 
fifteen minutes, the advance, nevertheless, continuing to 
approach the enemy without faltering. Such, indeed, was 
the eagerness of the troops, that officers and men jumped 
into the lake and waded to the shore. The troops were 
now formed with celerity, and led to the charge. They 
drove the enemy from their stronghold, and dispersed 
them in every direction ; some of their forces taking to the 
wood for shelter, and others retreating to the fort. Few 
shot were fired from the fort, the panic being instantly 
communicated to the garrison. Fort Niagara, and its 
dependent batteries, were still throwing in their shot, and 
Fort George having become untenable, the enemy hastily 
laid a train to the magazines, abandoned all their works, 
and moved off wath the utmost precipitation in different 
routes. Colonel Scott, with his light troops, continued the 
pursuit, until he was recalled by an order from General 
Boyd. Lieutenant Riddle had been sent by Colonel Scott 
with his detached party, to annoy the rear of the enemy, 
but not being ordered back, at the time when the light 
troops were recalled, he followed his route to Queenstown, 
and took up several of his straggling parties. The dra- 
goons, under Colonel Burn, crossed the Niagara river above 
Fort George, at the moment the pursuit was stopped. The 
light troops now took possession of Fort George. At 
twelve o'clock, Newark, and all its surrounding batteries, 
were in quiet possession of the American army ; and such 



294 JAMES MADISON. 

was the speed with which the enemy retreated, that very 
few of his troops were overtaken. General Dearborn's 
forces had been under arms eleven hours, and were said to 
be too much exhausted to pursue him with as much 
rapidity as he moved off. 

At the time the enemy abandoned his works, the wind 
had increased so much, and the sea had become so violent 
towards the shore, that the situation of the fleet at the 
stations which the different vessels had taken, was thought 
to be dangerous in the extreme. Commodore Chauncey 
therefore made signal for the whole fleet to weigh, and to 
proceed into the river, where they anchored between the 
Forts George- and Niagara. Although the action was fought 
by inferior numbers on the American side, the advance, 
and part of Boyd's brigade only being engaged, the loss of 
the enemy was excessive. He had in killed, 108 ; in 
wounded 163; 115 regulars were taken prisoners, exclusive 
of his wounded, all of whom fell into the hands of the 
Americans : so that the loss of the enemy in killed, 
wounded, and prisoners, of his regular force, amounted to 
3G6. The militia prisoners who were paroled to the 
number of 507, being added to their loss, makes a total of 
893. The American army lost 39 in killed and 111 in 
wounded. 

The capture of Fort George was one of the most l)ril- 
liant achievements of the war. The Americans followed 
up their success. Generals Chandler and Winder inflicted 
a severe defeat upon the army, under the command of 
General Vincent, at Stony Creek, and took many prisoners. 

In the mean time, Sir George Prevost, with a large bod}' 
of regulars, made an attempt upon Sackett's Harbour. But 
General Jacob Brown collected the neighbouring militia, 
made some skilful dispositions of his small force, and so 
gallantly repulsed the enemy, that he won a high reputa- 
tion for military abilities, and was appointed a brigadier in 
the regular army. 



JAMES MADISON. 295 

General Dearborn was now compelled by indisposition to 
retire from the command of the northern army. An unsuc- 
cessful attempt of Commodore Chauncey, to bring the British 
fleet on Lake Ontario to action, and a number of skirmishes 
followed, but nothing decisive was effected by either of the 
belligerents. 

Events of more importance occurred farther to the north- 
west. General Harrison extended his defensive arrange- 
ments, and enlarged his forces by new requisitions upon the 
governors of the contiguous state and territory. He was 
still engaged at his head quarters at Seneca, in fixing the 
destination of the new troops, as they arrived, and in dis- 
tributing them throughout the different posts. Fort Meigs 
was placed in an excellent state for vigorous defence, and 
active exertions were making to fortify Fort Stephenson. 
To the entire equipment of tlie latter, many difficulties 
presented themselves, and its situation was considered to 
be so defenceless, that General Harrison directed the com- 
mandant to destroy the public property, and immediately 
to abandon the fort, if the enemy should at any time 
appear before it. During tlie month of July, 1813, the 
assembled tribes of Indian warriors, under Tecumseh, and 
a considerable force of regulars, under General Proctor, had 
been well trained for an expedition, the object of which 
was to reduce Fort Stephenson, and thence to proceed to a 
second investment of Fort Meigs. Tecumseh was des- 
patched with 2000 warriors and a few regulars, to make a 
diversion favourable to the attack of Proctor and Dixon, 
upon Fort Stephenson. He approached Fort Meigs, and 
kept up a heavy firing at a distance, in order to persuade 
the garrison that an engagement had taken place between 
the Indian forces and a part of General Harrison's division. 
By the arrival at Fort Meigs, of an oflicer from the head 
quarters, this scheme was fortunately frustrated ; and Te- 
35 



296 JAMES MADISON. 

cumseh then approached the garrison, and surrounded it 
with his whole force. 

From Seneca Town scouting parties had been sent out in 
every direction, along the shores of Sandusky Bay, with 
instructions to keep U23 a continual communication with the 
commander-in-chief On the morning of the 1st of August, 
he was informed of the approach of the enemy to the mouth 
of the bay ; Fort Stephenson, situated twenty miles above, 
evidently being their object. Early in the evening, the com- 
bined forces, consisting of 700 Indians^ under Dixon, and 
500 regulars, under General Proctor, who commanded in 
chief, appeared before the fort. The gunboats, from which 
they had landed, were at the same time drawn up, to bear 
upon one of its angles. General Proctor immediately dis- 
posed his troops so as to surround the garrison, and entirely 
to cut off its retreat. His immense superiority of numbers 
enabled him to invest it so perfectly, that the American 
troops, whose whole effective force did not amount to 160 
men, had no probable prospect of cutting their way through; 
and Major Croghan, who had been promoted to the com- 
mand of this post, for liLs gallant conduct at the siege of 
Fort Meigs, having already disobeyed the orders of the 
commander-in-chief, by not destroying and abandoning the 
fort, had made arrangements to repel an assault, by cutting 
a deep ditch, and hastily constructing a stockade work 
around it. A flag was met at a few paces from the gar- 
rison, by Ensign Shipp, to whom General Proctor's demand, 
of an immediate and unconditional surrender, was delivered, 
and from whom the enemy received Major Croghan's answer, 
of a determination not to yield, but with the loss of all his 
men. The enemy then opened his fire from the gunboats, 
and a five and a half inch howitzer, and continued the can- 
nonade throughout the night. On the morning of the 2d, 
three six-pounders were discovered to have been planted at 
a distance of 250 yards from the stockade, and in a few 



JAMES MADISON. 297 

minutes after, an unsuccessful fire was opened upon the fort. 
The British general, feeling his inability to annoy the gar- 
rison, from the situation in which his artillery was then 
placed, and being convinced that he could neither make an 
impression upon the works, nor ever hope to carry them 
by storm, unless a breach could be made in the north-west 
angle of the fort, ordered all his guns to be directed at that 
point. A rapid fire was kept up against it for several 
hours; but Major Croghan, being aware of his design, de- 
tached as many men a,s could be usefully employed, to 
strengthen that angle ; by means of bags of sand, of flour, 
and other articles, it was effectually secured. Under a sup- 
position that his fire had shattered the stockade work, 
which was not at all injured. General Proctor ordered Lieu- 
tenant-Colonel Short to lead up a close column of 350 
regulars, of the 41st regiment, to storm the fort at that 
point, whilst a second column should make a feint upon 
that part of the American line, which was commanded by 
Captain Hunter, of the 17th. This attempt to draw the 
attention of the garrison from the north-west angle, did not 
succeed. The troops posted there were ordered to remain 
firm ; and, when the column, which was advancing against 
them, had approached within twenty paces of the lines, 
before which time it was so completely enveloped in smoke 
as not to be observed, they opened a heavy arid galling fire, 
threw the advancing party in confusion, and intimidated 
that which was reserved for the attack on the other angle 
of the fort. The British battery, which was then enlarged 
by two otlier six-pounders, was again opened, and sustained 
the advance of the two columns, by an incessant, though 
equally unsuccessful fire as the former. Colonel Short, ral- 
lying his men with great alacrity, again led them up, 
advanced to the stockade, and springing over the pickets 
into the ditch, commanded the whole column to follow, and 
assault the works with the utmost vigour, but to give nx) 
quciHer to any of the American soldiers. 



298 JAMES MADISON. 

At the north-western angle stood a block-house, in which 
a six pounder had been heretofore judiciously concealed. 
It was at this instant opened, and having previously been 
pointed so as to rake in that situation, a double charge of 
leaden slugs was fired into the ditch, and sweeping the 
whole column, the front of which was only thirty feet dis- 
tant from the piece, killed Colonel Short, and almost every 
man who had ventured to obey his order. A volley of 
musketry w^as fired at the same time, and great numbers 
of the enemy who had not yet entered the ditch, were 
severely wounded. The ofhcer who succeeded Colonel 
Short in the command of the broken column, immediately 
rallied and formed it anew, and led it on to the same fatal 
point. A second fire from the destructive six-pounder was 
poured upon it with as much success as the first ; and the 
small arms were discharged so briskly, that the enemy's 
troops were again thrown into confusion, and not all the 
exertions of the British officers could bring them up to 
another assault. They fled precipitately to an adjoining 
wood, and were very soon followed by the Indians. In a 
few minutes the firing entirely ceased : and an army much 
more than ten times superior to a small garrison, was com- 
pelled to relinquish an attack, the successful issue of which 
was not at all doubted by any one of its officers. 

On the morning of the 3d, the gunboats and transports 
sailed down the bay, and guards of soldiers were immedia- 
tely afterwards sent out to collect and bring into the fort 
all the wounded, and to bury the enemy's dead with the 
honours to which, by their rank, they were entitled. 
Seventy stand of arms, several braces of pistols, and a boat 
containing much clothing and military stores, which had 
been left in the hurry of the enemy's flight, were then taken. 
The loss of the assailants was reported to have been not 
less than 150 ; that of the garrison, was one killed, and 
seven slightly wounded. 



JAMES MADISON. 299 

The American fleet on Lake Erie, having been com- 
pleted, and, with great difficulty, passed over the bar, a 
principal part of the crew of each vessel being made up of 
Pennsylvania militia, who had volunteered to go on an 
expedition, sailed on a short cruise, for the purpose of train- 
ing the guns, and of exercising the sailors. In the latter 
part of August, Commodore Perry proceeded to the mouth 
of Sandusky river, to co-operate with General Harrison. 
At this place, about seventy volunteer marines were received 
on board, and the fleet sailed in quest of the British squad- 
ron. The latter was, at that time, near Maiden, before 
'svhich place Commodore Perry appeared, and after recon- 
noitring the enemy, he retired to Put-in-bay, a distance of 
thirty miles, in hopes of drawing out his antagonist. 

On the morning of the 10th of September, of the same 
year, 1813, the enemy was discovered, bearing down upon 
the American squadron, which immediately got under 
weigh, and stood out to meet him. The superiority of force 
was greatly in favour of the British, though they had not 
an equal number of vessels. Their crews were larger, and 
the length and number of their guns greater, than those of 
the American squadron. 

When the American fleet stood out, the British fleet had 
the weather-gage; but at 10 o'clock, A. M., the wind shift- 
ed, and brought the American to windward. The line of 
battle was formed at 11 ; and at 15 minutes before 12, the 
enemy's flag ship, and the Queen Charlotte, opened upon 
the Lawrence a heavy and effectual fire, which she was 
obliged to sustain upwards of ten minutes, without a j)Ossi- 
bility of returning it, in consequence of her battery being 
of carronades. She nevertheless continued to bear up, and 
having given a signal for the other vessels to support her, 
at a few minutes before 12 opened her fire upon the enemy. 
The wind being too light to assist the remainder of the 
squadron in coming up, the Lawrence was compelled to 



300 JAMES MADISON. 

figlit the enemy's heaviest vessels upwards of two hours. 
The crew were not at all depressed ; their animation in- 
creased, as the desperation of the fight became greater, and 
the guns were worked with as much coolness and precision, as 
if they had been in the act of training only. The slaugh- 
ter on board the brig was almost unparalleled, the rigging 
very much injured, and the braces entirely shot away ; and 
at length, after every gun had been rendered useless, she 
became quite unmanageable. Her loss already amounted to 
twenty-two killed, and sixty-one wounded ; when the com- 
modore, seeing that she must very soon strike, if the other 
vessels were not brought up, gave the command of the Law- 
rence to Lieutenant Yarnall, and jumping into a boat, or- 
dered it to be steered for the Niagara, to which vessel he 
had determined to shift his flag. In passing from the Law- 
rence to the Niagara, he stood up, waving his sword, 
and gallantly cheering his men, under a shower of balls. 
He gained the Niagara, unhurt, at the moment the flag of 
the Lawrence came down ; and the wind having at that 
instant increased, he brought her into action, and at 45 
minutes past 2 gave signal for the whole fleet to close. All 
the vessels were now engaged, but as the superiority of the 
enemy had been increased by the loss of the Lawrence, the 
commodore determined on piercing his line with the Niagara. 
He therefore resolutely bore up, and passing ahead of the 
Detroit, Queen Charlotte, and Lady Prevost, poured a gall- 
ing and destructive fire into each from his starboard side, 
and into the Chippewa and Little Belt, from his larboard. 
He was then within half j^istol shot, and as he cut through 
the line, the commander of the Lady Prevost, a brave oflS- 
cer, who had distinguished himself at the battle of the Nile, 
received a musket ball in his face, and the crew being un- 
able to stand the fire, immediately ran below. At this 
moment the Caledonia was struii;!2rlin2; to o;et closer into the 
action, and her commander. Lieutenant Turner, ordered 



T08 




JAMES MADISON. 303 

her guns to be fired through the foresail, which interfered 
between him and the enemy, rather than lose the chance 
of a full share in the combat, and was only prevented from 
attempting to board the Detroit, by the prudent refusal of 
the officer of another small vessel to assist him. 

The action was now raging with its utmost violence ; 
every broadside fired with the most exact precision, and 
the result of the conflict altogether uncertain. In addi- 
tion to the loss of the Lawrence's guns, one of the Ariel's 
had burst, and the enemy had then the superiority of 
thirty-four guns. This doubtful aspect, however, soon 
after changed. The Queen Charlotte had lost her captain, 
and all her principal officers, and having, by some mis- 
chance, run foul of the Detroit, most of the guns of both 
vessels became useless. In this situation, advantage of 
which was immediately taken by Commodore Perry, they 
were compelled to sustain, in turn, an incessant fire from 
the Niagara, and other vessels of the American squadron. 
The British commodore's flag was soon after struck, and 
those of the Queen Charlotte, the Lady Prevost, the 
Hunter, and the Chippewa, came down in immediate 
succession. The whole fleet surrendered to the inferior 
squadron, with the exception of the Little Belt, which 
attempted to escape, but was pursued by two of the gun- 
boats, and captured at a distance of three miles from the 
squadron. 

Thus, after an action of three hours, in which the indivi- 
dual gallantry of either fleet had never been surpassed by 
any naval event now to be found on the record of history, 
was the entire command of this important lake yielded to 
the American arms. 

The number of killed and wounded in both fleets was 
excessively great. Commodore Barclay was wounded in 
the hip, and lost the use of his right arm : the other had 
been shot off in a former action. The loss on board his 



304 JAMES MADISON. 

squadron exceeded 200. The American loss amounted to 
twenty-seven killed, and ninety-six wounded. The cap- 
tured vessels were convoyed to the bay of Sandusky, and 
the prisoners, 600 in number, conducted to Chilicothe. 
Among these, were a few companies of the British 41st 
regiment, who had been taken on board to act as marines. 
The result of this brilliant conflict was immediately 
followed by active and extensive preparations for the ex- 
pulsion of the enemy from Detroit, the entire subjugation 
of Maiden, and the overthrow of General Proctor's army. 
Governor Meigs had made a call upon the mihtia of Ohio, 
as soon as he was informed of the attack upon Fort Ste- 
phenson, and upwards of 15,000 volunteers were very soon 
under arms. Many of these were not yet discharged, and 
General Harrison now required a proportion of them. At 
the mouth of Portage river, he intended that his whole 
army should be concentrated ; and between that point and 
Sandusky Bay, he caused fences of logs to be constructed 
for the protection of the horses and baggage. The go- 
vernor of Kentucky, Isaac Shelby, arrived at the new head 
quarters of the army on the 17th of September, with 4000 
well mounted volunteers. The works at Fort Meigs being 
reduced and garrisoned by a few men, General M' Arthur 
marched from that post with his brigade, and joined the 
main body also. Thus strengthened. General Harrison 
determined on invading the enemy's shores; and at the 
dawn of the 21st he ordered his forces to embark at the 
mouth of the river, and to rendezvous at the different 
islands which lay in clusters between Maiden and the 
point of embarkation. To Colonel Johnson, who com- 
manded a Kentucky mounted regiment at Fort Meigs, he 
gave orders to proceed to Detroit by land ; arrangements 
having been first made, by which that officer and the 
commander-in-chief were to be informed of each other's 
progress by daily expresses. 



JAMES MADISON. 305 

On the 27th the troops were received on board the fleet, 
now enlarged by the captured vessels. They were em- 
barked at a small island, about twenty miles from Maiden, 
called the Eastern Sister, and one of two islands to which 
the names of the Sisters had been given. In the afternoon 
of the same day the fleet, which was composed of sixteen 
vessels of war and upwards of one hundred boats, arrived 
at a point three miles below Maiden. Here the troops 
were landed in good order, and with perfect silence, and 
proceeded thence to Amherstburg. 

The British general, well aware that the American com- 
mander would early avail himself of the advantages lately 
gained by the capture of the fleet, had made preparations 
to retire into the interior of Canada, to a place of better 
security than Maiden. He was apprised by his estafette 
of the approach of General Harrison, and having first set 
fire to the fort, and destroyed every article of public pro- 
perty, he ordered his forces, which were still composed of 
British regulars, and Tecumseh and Dixon's Indians, to 
retreat towards the Thames, and thence along its course to 
the Moravian Towns. The fort, the barracks, and other 
public buildings, were still smoking, when the American 
army entered Amherstburg, and a number of females came 
out to implore protection from its commander. They 
received it. 

On the 28th, the army crossed La Riviere aux Canards, 
the bridge over which the enemy had not stopped to 
destroy, and arrived at Sandwich on the following day, the 
fleet moving at the same time through the river Detroit to 
that place. Governor Shelby's command then occupied 
the point at which the first invasion of Canada had been 
attempted, whilst the remainder of the army crossed over 
to the delivery of the town of Detroit out of the possession 
of the British Indians, who immediately abandoned the 
garrison, and retreated in difierent directions. General 
36 



306 JAMES MADISON. 

Harrisoiij knowing that large numbers of warriors, under 
Split-Log, were collecting in the woods near Huron of Lake 
St. Clair, directing General M' Arthur to remain with most 
of the regulars, in the occupation of Detroit, whilst he 
would pursue the army of General Proctor up the Thames. 

The commander-in-chief, on the 2d of October, pursued 
the enemy's route. Such was the rapidity of his move- 
ment, that he encamped in the evening of the same day at 
the river Riscum, a distance of twenty-six miles from Sand- 
wich. Early on the morning of the 3d, he resumed his 
march, and proceeded in the advance with Johnson's 
regiment, in order to secure the bridges on the rivers 
tributary to Lake St. Clair. By the capture of a lieutenant 
of dragoons an^ eleven privates, who had been left in 
General Proctor's rear, with orders to take up every bridge, 
by which the approach of Harrison's army could possibly 
be facilitated, one bridge was saved, and the American 
general learned that the enemy had no " certain informa- 
tion of his advances up the Thames." 

On the morning of the 4 th, the army again proceeded on 
its route, and having reached Chatham, 17 miles from Lake 
St. Clair, found its progress obstructed by a deep and 
unfordable creek, the bridge of which had been partially 
destroyed by a body of Indians, who now made their ap- 
pearance, and fired on the front guard. They had taken a 
position on the opposite side of the creek, and flanked the 
American army on the right bank of the river. General 
Harrison made immediate arrangements to disperse or cap- 
ture them. Colonel Johnson was already stationed on the 
right of the line, and had seized the ruins of another bridge, 
under a smart fire from the Indians on that flank. Major 
Wood was directed to bring up his artillery, and cover the 
pioneers, who were repairing the first bridge. This he did 
with unexpected success. The Indians could not withstand 
the heavy discharges of artillery, and they therefore retired 



JAMES MADISON. 307 

without much regard to the order of their retreat. The 
bridge was quickly repaired, and the army, having first 
extinguished the flames of a farmhouse, which had been 
fired by the Indians, and captured from it 2000 stand of 
arms and a quantity of clothing, crossed over the creek, 
pursued the enemy four miles up the river, annoyed his 
rear guard, and took from him several pieces of cannon. 

On the 5th, the pursuit was eagerly renewed, and at- 
tended by the capture of two gunboats, and several barges, 
loaded with provisions and ammunition. Having attained 
the ground on which the enemy had encamped the night 
before, the commander-in-chief directed Colonel Johnson to 
hasten the march of his advance guard, and to send for- 
ward an officer to reconnoitre the situation of the combined 
British and Indian forces. This officer very soon after 
returned with intelligence that the enemy were prepared 
for action, in an open ground, within four miles of the 
American main body. The road upon which General Har- 
rison was then marching, entered a thick and extensive 
forest on the beach. A short distance from the bank of 
the Thames, was a miry swamp, which extended to the 
Moravian Town, and between this swamp and the river, was 
a level plain, through which, because of the thick under- 
wood in the forest, the army would be obliged to make its 
approaches. Across this plain the British line was drawn 
up, with its left resting on the river, supported by the 
greater proportion of their artillery, its centre being pro- 
tected by two heavy pieces, and its strength, in regulars, 
amounting to 600 : 1200 Indians were formed along the 
margin of the swamp. 

When General Harrison had come up with the main 
body, and was advised of the advantageous situation of the 
enemy, he ordered Colonel Paul, with 150 regulars, to 
occupy a space between the road and the river ; to advance 
upon, and divert the enemy, and on an opportunity, to 



308 JAMES MADISON. 

seize the cannon which defended his left flank. Lieutenant- 
Colonel James Johnson was directed to form Major Payne's 
battalion of the mounted regiment, and Major Suggett's 
three spy companies, into six charging columns, imme- 
diately in front of the British line of regulars and an Indian 
flank : whilst General Henny's division of infantry should 
be stationed for his support in his rear. Colonel Richard 
M. Johnson was charged with the formation of another 
battalion in front of the Indians tliat were arrayed on the 
margin of the swamp. He accordingly dismounted one 
company, under command of Captain Stucker, with which 
he stretched a line in face of the Indians, and ordered Ma- 
jor Thompson to form the remaining four companies, on 
horseback, into two charging columns of double files, im- 
mediately in the rear of the line on foot. The left of this 
battalion was supported by the infiintry of General Desha. 

Thus disposed, with the main army in their rear, these 
divisions moved forward to the attack. The British gave 
the first fire, upon which the charge was quickly ordered, 
and in a few moments the enemy's line was pierced by up- 
wards of 1000 horsemen, who, dashing through the British 
regulars with irresistible speed, either trampled under foot, 
or cut down every soldier who opposed them ; and having 
killed and wounded upwards of fifty, at one charge, instantly 
formed in their rear, and repeated the attack. Such was 
the panic which pervaded the whole line of the enemy, 
that an order which had been issued to fix bayonet, was 
not attempted to be executed ; and in a little while, Colonels 
Evans, Warburton, and Baubee, and Majors Muir and 
Chambers, surrendered with 472 prisoners. The charge 
had no sooner been made, than General Proctor, fearing the 
consequences of his conduct in Michigan, if he should be 
taken in this battle, abandoned his command, and made his 
escape ifi a carriage, under a strong escort of dragoons. 

Whilst this brilUant charge was making on the right, the 



JAMES MADISON. 309 

action was raging with great violence on the left. Between 
the Indians there, and the mounted men and infantry 
drawn up against them, it was longer and more obstinately 
contended. The Indians were commanded by Tecumseh, 
who fought with more than his accustomed skill, and hav- 
ing posted his warriors in the best possible situations to 
repulse an attack, he indicated his willingness to receive 
the assault of the American cavalry. Colonel Johnson, 
who saw that the Indians would dispute the ground with 
more bravery than the British regulars, placed himself at 
the head of his battalion, and led it up to a vigorous charge 
upon Tecumseh's flank. That chief at the same moment 
dealt out a tremendous fire, M^hich, though severe in its 
effect, did not retard the movement of the advancing col- 
umns. But the difficulty of penetrating the thicket and 
swamp, threw an impediment in the way of a successful 
result to an onset with dragoons, and the attempt to break 
the Indian line in consequence failed. An engagement 
immediately took place, however, in which, after exchang- 
ing several rounds with Tecumseh's band. Colonel Johnson 
ordered both his columns to dismount, and leading them up 
a second time, he made a desperate but successful efibrt 
to break through the Indians. Having gained the rear of 
their line, his next order directed his men to fight them in 
their own mode. The contest became now more obstinate. 
Notwithstanding their line had been thus pierced, and their 
warriors were falling in considerable numbers, the Indians 
did not think themselves yet discomfited, and quickly col- 
lecting their principal strength upon the right, they made 
an attempt to penetrate the line of infantry under General 
Desha. In this they partially succeeded, a part of that 
line having faltered, when Governor Shelby brought up 
three companies of his volunteers to its support, and in 
turn threw back the Indians. Tecumseh was killed, and 
Colonel Johnson disabled. 



310 JAMES MADISON. 

JTlie wounded colonel being then removed from the field, 
the command of that battalion devolved on Major Thomp- 
son, who continued to fight the whole body of the Indians 
more than an hour, and eventually put them to flight. In 
their attempt to gain the village through the level plain, 
they were pursued, and numbers of them cut down by the 
cavalry. 

The Americans being now masters of the field, their gallant 
commander, who had been in every part of the action, direct- 
ed the wounded officers and men of both armies to be taken 
care of, and the trophies of the victory to be collected and 
conveyed to the squadron. Among these were several 
pieces of brass cannon, which had been taken from Bur- 
goyne at Saratoga in the struggle for the independence of 
the states, and surrendered again by General Hull, thirty- 
five years afterwards, at Detroit. 

In the battle of the Thames, the number of Americans 
engaged did not exceed 1400. The nature of the ground 
rendered an operation by the whole force impracticable, and 
the main body therefore formed a corps of reserve. They 
sustained a loss of fifty in killed and wounded. The enemy 
lost in regulars alone upwards of ninety killed, and about 
the same number wounded, and surrendered in all 600 
persons. Among the Indians, 120 were killed, including 
their brave but ambitious and inveterate leader. 

A squadron of horse, which had been ordered in pursuit 
of Proctor immediately after his flight, returned to General 
Harrison with the baggage and private papers of the British 
commander, which they had taken within 100 yards of his 
escort. By the speed of his horses and his knowledge of 
the country, he successfully eluded his pursuers. 

The result of this victory was highly advantageous, not 
only to the operations of the army below, but to all the 
north-western territories, some of whose inhabitants were 
released from the restraint of a conquered people, and had 



JAMES MADISON. 311 

now a favourable jDrospect of future tranquillity. By this 
event, the whole British force in that part of Canada was 
destroyed, the association with each other of the different 
tribes hostile to the United States prevented, and their 
reunion with the enemy entirely cut off. By the fall of the 
Shawanee chief, the Americans were disencumbered of their 
most powerful, inveterate, and experienced Indian enemy ; 
and a sudden check was given to the spirit of barbarian 
enterprise, to which that frontier had hitherto been subject. 

On the day following that on which the battle of the 
Thames was fought, General Harrison destroyed the Mora- 
vian Town, and commenced his march for Detroit, where he 
negotiated terms of peace with other tribes, and received a 
flag from General Proctor, accompanied by a request that 
humane treatment might be extended to the British prison- 
ers. This request had been anticipated by the American 
general, who had already given up the simple comforts of 
his own tent to the wounded British colonels, and had in- 
structed his troops before the battle, that the person of even 
General Proctor should be respected, if, by the fortune of 
the day, it should be thrown into their hands. 

General Wilkinson, who had succeeded to the command 
of the northern army, had established his head quarters 
at Fort George. The war department having been removed 
to the frontier. Secretary Armstrong and General Wilkin- 
son concerted a plan of operations on the St. Lawrence. 
A descent on Montreal was agreed upon. By the 23d 
of October, the force concentrated at Grenadier Island 
amounted to about 8000 men. Early in November, they 
proceeded down the St. Lawrence, encountering considerable 
resistance, but advancing steadily. A portion of the troops 
were landed. On the 11th of November, these met the 
enemy at Chrystler s Fields, and a brisk engagement ensued. 
Both parties retired, and both claimed the victory, although 
the British suffered most severely. The Americans then 



312 JAMES MADISON. 

continued their route. But soon afterwards General 
Wilkinson received a letter, informing him that General 
Hampton could not join him at St. Regis, the appointed 
rendezvous ; and then a council of war decided that the 
expedition ought to be abandoned. General Hampton had 
led a considerable force to the St. Lawrence by another 
route ; but had met such obstacles that he was compelled 
to retire. 

General M'Clure had been left by Wilkinson in command 
at Fort George. Believing the post untenable, he destroyed 
the town of Newark, rendered the guns of the fort useless, 
and then evacuated it for the purpose of retiring to Fort 
Niagara. In the mean time, however, Colonel Murray, with 
a British detachment, surprised and captured Fort Niagara. 
But the enemy could not retain any other positions in the 
vicinity. 

The campaign of 1813, in the north, was now drawn 
to its close ; and though the American arms had attained 
a high degree of reputation, no one advantage was ob- 
tained, to atone for the blood and treasure which had 
already been exhausted. The capital of Upper Canada 
had been taken. It was scarcely captured before it was 
abandoned. The bulwark of the province, Fort George, 
had been gallantly carried ; but an inferior foe was suffered 
to escape, after being beaten ; and the conquerors were 
soon after confined to the works of the garrison, and 
closely invested upwards of six months. The long-con- 
templated attack upon Montreal was frustrated ; King- 
ston still remained a safe and advantageous harbour in 
the hands of the enemy ; and a fortress which might have 
been long and obstinately and effectually defended, was 
yielded, with scarcely a struggle, and under circumstances 
mysterious in the extreme, to the retaliating invaders of 
the American Niagara frontier. In the course of the sum- 
mer of 1813, the American army possessed every position 



JAMES MADISON. 313 

between Lake Ontario and Lake Erie, on both sides of the 
Niagara. In the winter of the same year, after having 
gradually lost their possessions on the British side of 
that stream, they were deprived of their possessions on 
their own. 

While these events were occurring upon land, others of 
almost equal importance took place along the seaboard 
and upon the ocean. As soon as the war had been de- 
clared, the British government had prepared to blockade 
the principal bays and rivers of the United States. In- 
censed at the successes of the American naval arms over 
the frigates and sloops-of-war of their nation, they hastened 
the departure of their different fleets ; and, in retaliation for 
the invasion of their provinces by the American troops, in- 
structed their commanders to burn and otherwise to destroy, 
not only the coasting and river craft, but the towns and vil- 
lages on the navigable inlets ; and more particularly in the 
southern departments of the union. Early in the spring 
of 1813, detachments of these fleets arrived at the mouth 
of the Delaware, and at the entrance to the Chesapeake 
Bay. Others were to rendezvous at Bermuda, and thence 
to proceed to the reinforcement of the blockading squadrons. 

In the Delaware Bay, a large number of trading vessels 
were destroyed, and the crews of the British vessels had 
frequent skirmishes with the inhabitants of Delaware and 
New Jersey. The Americans had flotillas of gunboats in 
their principal bays ; and these had several severe combats 
with the British men-of-war, in which the latter were the 
greatest sufferers. In the Chesapeake, the blockading squad- 
ron destroyed a vast amount of property, but the invaders 
met with many severe repulses. In Hampton Roads, the 
British frigates were attacked by a number of gunboats, 
commanded by Captain Tarbell, and kept at bay, while 
some troops that landed were repulsed with loss. The 
37 



314 JAMES MADISON". 

British fleets were under the command of Admirals Warren 
and Cockburn. 

Upon the ocean, the Americans achieved some brilliant 
successes, but met with one severe reverse. The sloop-of- 
war Hornet, Captain James Lawrence, after a profitable 
cruise, fell in with the British brig Peacock, Captain Peake, 
early in February, 1814, and captured her, after an action 
of about fifteen minutes. Soon after her surrender, the 
Peacock sunk, carrying down thirteen of her own, and 
three of the Hornet's crew. 

Returning to port, Captain Lawrence was transferred to 
the command of the frigate Chesapeake, which vessel was 
immediately equipped for a cruise. During the month of 
May, the British frigate. Shannon, appeared off the harbour 
of Boston, and her commander. Captain Broke, sent a chal- 
lenge to Lawrence. Although the Chesapeake had a new 
and rather mutinous crew, her gallant captain accepted the 
challenge, sailed out on the 10th of June, and encountered 
the enemy. A close and bloody action ensued. Lawrence 
was mortally wounded, nearly all his officers killed or 
wounded, and a large number of his men disabled; and 
then the British took possession of the ship. This victory 
excited much exultation among the British, but did not 
depress the spirits of the Americans. Besides these single 
combats on the deep, the American privateers swept the 
seas, and inflicted a vast amount of injury upon the com- 
merce of the enemy. About 700 vessels were taken by 
them during the years 1812 and 1813. 

The army of General Wilkinson went into winter quar- 
ters in the latter part of 1813 ; the right division being at 
Champlain, and the left at French Mills. In the month 
of February, 1814, the British made an attempt on the 
latter post, but were compelled to retire. Early in March, 
General Wilkinson attempted to establish a post at La 
CoUe, but, after losing 150 men, he gave up his design. In 



JAMES MADISON. 315 

the mean time, both belligerents had prepared naval forces 
to contend for the mastery on Lake Champlain, and a 
severe struggle in that quarter was anticipated. 

On the 8th of March, 1813, the Russian minister at 
Washington, had communicated to President Madison an 
offer of the Czar Alexander, to mediate between the United 
States and Great Britain. Accepting the offer, the presi- 
dent appointed Messrs. Albert Gallatin, John Quincy 
Adams, and James A, Bayard, as commissioners to nego- 
tiate. Henry Clay and Jonathan Russel were afterwards 
added to the commission. The British government con- 
sented to negotiate, and Ghent, in Belgium, was fixed upon 
as the place of meeting. 

To retrieve the disastrous consequences of the last north- 
ern campaign; to regain the possession of the posts in 
Canada, which had been obtained by conquest, and lost by 
the inefhcacy of the means provided to retain them ; to drive 
the enemy from the occupancy of the American garrison 
at the mouth of the Niagara ; and to command the frontiers 
on both sides of that stream ; various plans had been pro- 
jected, numerous dispositions made, and measures were 
finally adopted for their achievement. To this end, Gene- 
ral Brown, now elevated to the rank of Major-General, 
was ordered to assemble and organize a division of the 
army at and in the neighbourhood of Black Rock and 
Buffalo. This division consisted of two brigades of regu- 
lars, the first commander by Brigadier-General Scott, for- 
merly of the 2d artillery, and the second by Brigadier- 
General Ripley, formerly of the 21st infantry. To these 
were added a brigade of New York volunteers, and a few 
Indians, under Brigadiers-General Porter and Swift. During 
the months of April, May, and June (1814), the concentra- 
tion of this force was effected, and the principal part of that 
time employed in its discipline. 

The British army in Upper Canada was placed under the 



316 JAMES MADISON. 

command of General Drummond ; tlie force immediately 
opposed to the Americans was commanded by General 
Riall. 

On the 3d of July, General Scott, with 3000 men, crossed 
the Niagara, and captured Fort Erie. General Riall was 
then intrenched at Chippewa. Brown determined to drive 
him fromi;hat post, and put his forces in motion for that 
purpose. On the 5th, General Scott, who commanded the 
advanced brigade, attacked the enemy, and a fierce engage- 
ment ensued. The British were driven from the field, hav- 
ing suffered a loss of 500 men. The loss of the Americans 
was 338 men. On the 20th of July, the belligerent armies 
again met at Lundy's Lane, where w^as fought the most 
obstinate and sanguinary battle that had occurred during 
the war. The British forces were superior in numbers — 
amounting to 5000 men, while the Americans numbered 
4000. Each army lost about 900 men, and the Americans 
remained in possession of the field. Generals Brown and 
Scott being disabled by severe wounds, the command de- 
volved on Ripley, who retired to Fort Erie. Soon after- 
wards. General Gaines arrived and assumed the command. 

On the 15tli of August, General Drummond attacked 
Fort Erie ; but the post was gallantly defended, and the 
enemy were compelled to retire, having lost a thousand 
men. On the 17th, General Brown, having sufficiently 
recovered to resume the command of the forces, made a 
sortie from Fort Erie, killed, wounded, or captured about 
a thousand of the enemy, and compelled them to retire to 
Fort George. In November, Fort Erie was abandoned and 
demohshed, and the Americans retired to Buffalo and its 
neighbourhood for winter quarters. 

During the month of August, Sir George Prevost had 
concentrated about 14,000 British regulars in Lower Canada 
for a descent on Plattsburg and other posts on Lake Cham- 
plain. The British fleet upon the lake, which was to co- 



iLi 




JAMES MADISON. 319 

operate, was commanded by Commodore Downie, and con- 
sisted of four armed vessels and thirteen gunboats. The 
Americans prepared for resistance by concentrating a large 
force at Plattsburg under the command of General Macomb, 
and throwing up rude defences, and by preparing a fleet 
on the lake, consisting of four armed vessels and ten gun- 
boats and galleys, under the command of Commodore Mac- 
donough. Sir George Prevost arrived before Plattsburg on 
the 6th of September, and on the 11th a combined attack 
was made upon land and lake. After a fierce engagement 
of two hours, Macdonough silenced the guns of the enemy's 
fleet, captured the larger vessels, sunk some others, and 
put the rest to flight. Upon land the British attacked the 
defences of the Americans, but were repulsed. The whole 
army retreated during the night, having sustained a total 
loss of 2500 men. Macomb and Macdonough gained great 
honour by this victory. 

In the mean time, events of great importance occurred in 
the Chesapeake. On the 19th of August, a British army of 
5000 men, under General Ross, landed on the Patuxent and 
commenced a march toward Washington city. The Ameri- 
can flotilla under Commodore Barney was abandoned and 
burnt. Advancing by the way of Bladensburg, the British 
army was met by a small body of seamen and marines, 
but the latter were soon overpowered, and the conmiodore 
taken prisoner. The enemy then proceeded to Washing- 
ton, and on the 24 th burnt the capitol, the president's 
house, and other public buildings, after which they retreated 
to their ships. There were a few regular troops, under 
General Winder, and some militia regiments, in the vicinity 
of Washington, but they made but a feeble resistance to 
the British army, and soon fled. The president, and the 
secretaries of state, war, and the navy, were in the camp, 
and narrowly escaped capture by a timely flight. A 
British squadron had in the mean time ascended the 



320 JAMES MADISON. 

Potomac, and on the 29th appeared before Alexandria, and 
as that city was destitute of any means of defence, the 
inhabitants were compelled to ransom the place by giving 
up to the enemy the merchandise on sale in the city, and 
the shipping at the wharves. General Ross, after his 
return to the British fleet with his troops, resolved to lead 
them to an attack uj)on Baltimore. But the citizens of that 
place made extensive ^^reparations for a defence, and the 
militia of the city and vicinity, forming an army of 15,000 
men, were placed under arms, to meet the enemy. The 
British fleet passed up the Patapsco and bombarded Fort 
M'Henrj', and the army was landed at North Point, four- 
teen miles below Baltimore. Being repulsed in their attack 
upon Fort M'Henry, and having lost their commander. 
General Ross, who was killed in a skirmish with a jDart of 
the American troops, the British retired to their ships on 
the 14th of September, and soon after left the Chesapeake.* 

The loss of Washington had been a depressing blow to 
the Americans; but the successful defence of Plattsburg 
and Baltimore dispelled the gloom and caused a general 
exultation. 

British squadrons kept the coast of New England in 
continual alarm. Attacks were made upon New London 
and Stonington, and a great deal of property was destroyed. 
But the militia of the towns and the neighbouring country 
]->revented any formidable invasion of the territory near the 
coast. On the ocean, the Americans continued successful 
till the end of the war. The only reverse sustained was 
the capture of the hitherto successful frigate Essex, Captain 
Porter, after a desperate struggle, by the two British vessels, 
the frigate Phoebe and the sloop-of-war Cherub. The 
United States sloop-of-war Peacock captured the enemy's 
sloop-of-war Epervier in the Gulf of Mexico, and the sloop-of- 
war Wasp, Captain Blakeley, captured the vessels Reindeer 

* Statesman's ^lauual. 



JAMES MADISON. 321 

and Avon, of equal force with herself, in succession. Other 
victories were gained upon the sea of more importance. 
In February, 1815, the Constitution, Captain Stewart, 
captured at the same time, the British men-of-war Cyane 
and Levant, off the Island of Madeira. In March, the 
Hornet gained the crowning naval victory of the war, by 
capturing the Penguin, off the coast of Brazil. 

The last conflict of importance upon land during the 
war, occurred at the south-western extremity of the Union, 
in the defence of New Orleans. Early in the autumn of 
1814, information had been received by the American go- 
vernment that the enemy contemplated sending a powerful 
expedition against Louisiana. Mr. Monroe, who had become 
acting secretary of war, immediately hastened preparations 
to meet the attack. General Andrew Jackson, who had 
gained much military renown by the overthrow of the 
Creek Indians during the war, had command at New Or- 
leans. With wonderful energy and decision he collected 
forces and prepared the city for defence. In the latter part 
of December, about 14,000 British soldiers, veterans of the 
Peninsular wars, under the command of General Packenham, 
arrived off the mouth of the Mississippi, and soon effected 
a landing. General Jackson attacked the enemy on the 
night of the 23d of December, and inflicted considerable 
injury upon them. The decisive engagement took place on 
the 8th of January, when the British army advanced to 
the assault. They suffered a dreadful repulse. Genera] 
Packenham was among the slain, and Generals Gibbs and 
Keene, next in command, were disabled. About 2000 men 
were killed, wounded, or captured by the Americans, who 
only suffered a loss of seven killed and six wounded. Soon 
afterwards the British retreated to their fleet. 

In the mean time, a treaty of peace had been concluded 
at Ghent (December 24th, 1814). The news arrived in 
February, 1815, while the nation was still exulting over 



322 JAMES MADISON. 

the victory of New Orleans. The treaty was immediately 
ratified by the Senate. On the subject of impressment, 
the document was silent, and commercial regulations be- 
tween England and America were referred to future nego- 
tiations. Although the contest had been concluded in 
triumph, the administration and the nation rejoiced at the 
return of peace. Difficulties had thickened around the go- 
vernment. In the New England States the opposition had 
become so powerful as to threaten a dissolution of the 
Union. The " Hartford Convention," held at the close of 
the year 1814, was known to have given moral "aid and 
comfort" to the enemies of the country, and the president 
and his friends were glad that the clamours of that sectional 
party were silenced. 

When the war was at an end, the currency and the 
public credit were so deranged that the secretary of the 
treasury recommended, as a necessary measure, the estab- 
lishment of a national bank. Mr. Madison had been 
opposed to this measure from the first. The bill establish- 
ing the bank was passed by Congress in January, 1815; 
but the president vetoed it. In April, of the next year, 
however, the president sanctioned the creation of this great 
financial agent, and it went into operation. In the mean 
time, the army was reduced to a peace establishment of 
ten thousand men, an act passed to keep up a naval estab- 
lishment, and direct taxes were continued. The honour of 
the country was sustained, and its commerce protected by 
a squadron in the Mediterranean. Treaties of friendship 
with the Indians, and the admission of Indiana into the 
Union, were the chief events of the remainder of Mr. Madi- 
son's administration, which ended on the 3d of March, 
1817. 

Mr. Madison retired to his estate at Montpelier, Vir- 
ginia, where passed the remainder of his days. In 1829, 
he was chosen a member of the convention to revise the 



JAMES MADISON. 



323 



constitution of Virginia, and for several years he acted as 
rector of the University of Virginia. Enjoying the society 
of a large number of distinguished friends, he hved to the 
advanced age of 85, and closed his career on the 28th of 
June, 1836. 

Mr. Madison was of small stature, and rather corpulent. 
His countenance was calm, dignified, and intelligent. His 
manner was extremely modest, and he never completely 
conquered a certain diffidence of speech. As an orator he 
did not attain a high rank, though undoubtedly a formida- 
ble debater. As a writer, he has had no superior among 
American statesmen. 




BATTLE OF NEW ORLEANS. 



38 



JAMES MONKOE. 



James Monroe is remembered by his countrymen as a, 
brave soldier of the revolution, a keen diplomatist, an 
energetic war minister, and the conductor of two successful 
administrations. The devotion of the patriot and the fore- 
sight and energy of the statesman cannot be denied him, 
although it is agreed that he did not possess the brilliant 
qualities of such men as Washington, Jefferson, and Adams. 
His life is interesting and instructive, as extending over an 
eventful period, and as showing what prudence and energy 
may accomplish. 

James Monroe was born of an ancient and honourable 
family, in the county of Westmoreland, Virginia, on the 
2d of April, 1759. He was six years of age when the 
Stamp Act was passed, and his early youth was spent amid 
the exciting events that led to the revolution. He was 
sent to William and Mary College. When he had reached 
his eighteenth year, the war had begun ; gloom had settled 
upon the affairs of America — but the Declaration of Inde- 
pendence had been issued. Fired with patriotic zeal, Mon- 
roe left college, and joined the army of Washington, de- 
termined to share the fate of his country. 

Mr. Monroe commenced his military career, as his coun- 
try did that of her independence, with adversity. He 
joined her standard when others were deserting it. He re- 
paired to the head quarters of Washington, at New York, 
precisely at the time when Britain was pourinir hor thou- 

(824) 



JAMES MONROE. 327 

sands of native and foreign mercenaries upon our shores; 
when, in proportion as the battalions of invading armies 
thickened and multiplied, those of the heroic chieftain of 
our defence were dwindling to the verge of dissolution. 
When the disastrous days of Flatbush, HoBrlem Heights and 
White Plains, were followed by the successive evacuation 
of Long Island and New York, the surrender of Fort 
Washington, and the retreat through the Jerseys; till on 
the day devoted to celebrate the birth of the Saviour of 
mankind, of the same year on which Independence was 
proclaimed, Washington, with the houseless heads, and 
unshod feet, of three thousand new and undisciplined levies, 
stood on the western bank of the Delaware, to contend in 
arms with the British Lion, and to baffle the skill and 
energy of the chosen champions of Britain, with ten times 
the number of his shivering and emaciate host ; the stream 
of the Delaware forming the only barrier between the proud 
array of 30,000 veteran Britons, and the scanty remnant of 
his dissolving band. Then it was that the glorious leader 
of our forces struck the blow which decided the issue of 
the war. Then it was that the myriads of Britain's war- 
riors were arrested in their career of victory, by the hun- 
dreds of our gallant defenders, as the sling of the shepherd 
of Israel prostrated the Philistine, who defied the armies of 
the living God. And in this career both of adverse and 
of prosperous fortune, James Monroe was one of that little 
Spartan band, scarcely more numerous, though in the event 
more prosperous, than they who fell at Thermopylae. At 
the Heights of Hasrlem, at the White Plains, at Trenton 
he was present, and in leading the vanguard, at Trenton, 
received a ball, which sealed his patriotic devotion to his 
country's freedom with his blood. The superintending 
Providence which had decreed that on that, and a swiftly- 
succeeding day, Mercer, and Ilaselet, and Porter, and Neal, 
and Fleniing, and Shippen, should join the roll of warlike 



328 JAMES MONROE. 

dead, martyrs to the cause of liberty, reserved Monroe for 
higher services, and for a long and illustrious career, in war 
and in peace. 

Recovered from his wound, and promoted in rank, as a 
reward for his gallantry and suffering in the field, he soon 
returned to the army, and served in the character of aid- 
de-camp to Lord Sterling, through the campaigns of 1777 
and 1778; during which, he was present and distinguished 
in the actions of Brandy wine, Germantown, and Monmouth. 
But, having by this been superseded in his lineal rank in 
the army, he withdrew from it, and failing, from the ex- 
hausted state of the country, in the effort to raise a regi- 
ment, for which, at the recommendation of Washington, he 
had been authorized by the legislature of Virginia, he re- 
sumed the study of the law, under the friendly direction of 
the illustrious Jefferson, then governor of that common- 
wealth. In the succeeding years, he served occasionally as 
a volunteer, in defence of the state, against the distressing 
invasions with which it was visited, and once, after the fall 
of Charleston, South Carolina, in 1780, at the request of 
Governor Jefferson, repaired, as a military commissioner, to 
collect and report information with regard to the condition 
and prospects of the southern army and states ; a trust 
which he discharged to the entire satisfaction of the 
governor and executive, by whom it had been committed 
to him. 

In 1782, he was elected a member of the legislature of 
Virginia, and, by them, a member of the executive council. 
On the 9th of June, 1783, he was chosen a member of the 
Congress of the United States ; and, on the thirteenth of 
December, of the same year, took his seat in that body, at 
Annapolis, where his first act was, to sit as one of those 
representatives of the nation into whose hands the victo- 
rious leader of the American armies surrendered his com- 
mission. Mr. Monroe was now twenty-four years of age, 



JAMES MONROE. 829 

and had already performed that, in the service of his coun- 
try, which would have sufficed for the illustration of an 
ordinary life.* 

From 1783 to 1786, Mr. Monroe continued a member 
of the Confederate Congress, and had continual opportunity 
for observing the utter inefficiency of that compact for the 
preservation and welfare of the union. He took an active 
part in bringing about the convention that framed the 
federal constitution. 

On the 18th of April, 1783, the resolution of Congress 
had passed, declaring it absolutely necessary that they 
should be vested with a power to levy an impost of five 
per cent. On the 13th of April, 1784, another resolution 
was adopted, recommending to the legislatures of the states 
to grant to Congress the power of regulating commerce. 
And on the 13th of July, 1785, Congress debated the re- 
port of a committee of which Mr. Monroe was the chair- 
man, combining the objects of both those prior resolutions, 
and proposing such alteration of the Articles of the Con- 
federation, as was necessary to vest Congress with the 
power both to regulate commerce, and to levy an impost 
duty. These measures were not abortive, inasmuch as they 
were progressive steps in the march towards better things. 
They led first to the partial convention of delegates from 
five states, at Annapolis, in September 1786; and then to 
the general convention at Philadelphia, in 1787, which 
prepared and proposed the Constitution of the United States. 
Whoever contributed to that event is justly entitled to the 
gratitude of the present age as a public benefactor ; and 
among them the name of Monroe should be conspicuously 
enrolled. 

Among the very few powers which, by the Articles of 
Confederation, had been vested in Congress, was that of 
constituting a court of commissioners, selected from its own 

* John Quincy Adams. 



330 JAMES MONROE. 

body, to decide upon any disputed question of boundary 
jurisdiction, or any other cause whatever, between any 
two states in the Union. These commissioners, were in 
the first instance, to be chosen with mutual consent by 
the agents of the two states, parties to the controversy; 
the final determination of which was submitted to them. 

Such a controversy had taken place between the states 
of Massachusetts and New York, the agents of which 
attending in Congress in December, 1784, agreed upon nine 
persons, to constitute the federal court, to decide the ques- 
tion between the parties. Of these nine persons, James 
Monroe was one; a distinction, in the 2Gth year of his age, 
indicating the high estimation in which he was already held 
throughout the Union. The subsequent history of this con- 
troversy to its final and friendly settlement, affords an illus- 
tration coinciding with numberless others, of the imbecility 
of the Confederacy. On the 21st of March, 1785, Congress 
were informed by a letter from Mr. Monroe, that he accepted 
the appointment of one of the Judges of the Federal Court, 
to decide the controversy. On the 9th of June following, 
the agents from the contending states reported to Congress 
that they had agreed upon three persons, whom they named, 
as judges of the federal court, instead of three of those 
who had been appointed the preceding December, but had 
declined accepting their appointment : and the agents re- 
quested that a commission might be issued to the court, as 
finally constituted to meet at Williamsburg, in Virginia, on 
the third Tuesday of November, then next, to hear and 
determine the controversy. 

On the 2d of November of the same year, a representation 
was made by the agents of the two states to Congress, that 
such had been the difficulties and delays in obtaining 
answers from several of the judges, that the parties were 
left in suspense even to that hour ; a hearing had thus been 
prevented, and further procrastination was unavoidable. 



JAMES MONROE. 661 

They petitioned, therefore, that the hearing snould be re- 
mitted to such a day, as the parties should agree upon, and 
thereafter certify to Congress — and a resolution passed 
accordingly. 

On the 15th of May, 1786, a letter was received by 
Congress from Mr. Monroe, informing them that some 
circumstances would put it out of his power to act as a 
judge for the decision of this controversy, and resigning 
his commission. 

On the 27th of September following, Congress were 
informed by the agents of the parties that they had 
agreed upon a person to be a judge, in the place of Mr. 
Monroe, and they requested that a new commission might 
be issued to the court. The court never met, for on the 
16th of December, 1786, the litigating parties, by their 
respective agents at Hartford, in Connecticut, settled 
the controversy by agreement, between themselves, and to 
their mutual satisfaction. Of this the agents gave notice 
to Congress on the 8th of October, 1787, and they moved 
that the attested copy of the agreement between the 
two states, which they laid before Congress, should be filed 
in the secretary's office — which was refused; that body 
declining even to keep upon their files the evidence of an 
accord between two members of the Union, concluded 
otherwise than as the Articles of Confederation had pre- 
scribed. 

By the Articles of Confederation no delegate in Congress 
was eligible to serve more than three years in six. 
Towards the close of 1786, the term of Mr. Monroe's 
service in that capacity expired. During that term, and 
while Congress were in session at New York, he formed a 
matrimonial connexion with Miss Kortright, daughter of 
Mr. L. Kortright, of an ancient and respectable family of 
that state. This lady, of whose personal attractions and 
accomplishments it were impossible to speak in terms of 



332 JAMES MONROE. 

exaggeration, was, for a period little short of half a century, 
the cherished and affectionate partner of his life and for- 
tunes. 

After his retirement from service in the Confederation 
Congress, assuming, with a view to practice at the bar, a 
temporary residence at Fredericksburg, he was almost 
immediately elected to a seat in the legislature of Virginia ; 
and the ensuing year, to the convention, summoned in 
that commonwealth, to discuss and decide upon the Con- 
stitution of the United States. 

The federal constitution, having been framed with diffi- 
culty, was submitted to the conventions of the several 
states for consideration. In Virginia, there was a strong 
party headed by Patrick Henry, George Mason, and the 
subject of this memoir, opposed to the adoption of the con- 
stitution, believing it to be dangerous to the liberties of the 
people. 

When, in the legislature of Virginia, the question was 
discussed of the propriety of calling a state convention to 
decide upon the constitution of the United States, Mr. 
Monroe took no part in the debate. He then doubted of 
the course which it would be most advisable to pursue — 
whether to adopt the constitution in the hope that certain 
amendments which he deemed necessary, would afterwards 
be obtained, or to suspend the decision upon the constitu- 
tion itself, until those amendments should have been 
secured. When elected to the convention, he expressed 
those doubts to his constituents assembled at the polls ; 
but his opinion having afterward and before the meeting 
of the convention, settled into a conviction, that the 
amendments should precede the acceptance of the constitu- 
tion, he addressed to his constituents a letter, stating his 
objections to that instrument, which letter was imperfectly 
printed, and copies of it were sent by him to several dis- 
tinguished characters, among whom were General Wash- 



JAMES MONROE. 333 

ington, Mr, Jefferson, and Mr. Madison, who viewed it 
with hberahtj and candour. 

In the convention Mr. Monroe took part in the debate, 
and in one of his speeches entered fully into the merits of 
the subject. He was decidedly for a change, and a very 
important one, in the then existing system ; but the con- 
stitution reported, had in his opinion defects requiring 
amendment, which should be made before its adoption. 

The convention, however, by a majority of less than ten 
votes of one hundred and seventy, resolved to adopt the 
constitution, with a proposal of amendments to be engrafted 
upon it. Such too, was the definitive conclusion in all the 
other states, although two of them lingered one or two 
years after it was in full operation by authority of all the 
rest, before their acquiescence in the decision. 

By the course which Mr. Monroe had pursued on this 
great occasion, although it left him for a short time in the 
minority, yet he lost not the confidence either of the people 
or of the legislature of Virginia. At the organization of 
the government of the United States, the first senators 
from that state were Richard Henry Lee and William 
Grayson. The decease of the latter in December, 1789, 
made a vacancy wdiich was immediately supplied by the 
election of Mr. Monroe ; and in that capacity he served 
until May, 1794, when he was appointed, at the nomina- 
tion of President Washington, minister plenipotentiary to 
the republic of France. 

In the selection of him, the principle of conciliation to 
the government near which he was accredited had been 
observed. But Washington was actuated also by a further 
motive of holding the balance between the parties at home 
by this appointment. Mr. Jay, minister to England, was 
of the Federal party, with a bias of inclination favourable 
to Britain ; Mr. Monroe, of the party which then began to 
call itself the Republican party, inclining to favour the 



334 JAMES MONROE. 

csiv-ie of Republican France. This party was then in 
ardent opposition to the general course of Washington's 
administration — and that of Mr. Monroe in the Senate had 
not been inactive. To concihate that party too, was an 
object of Washington's most earnest sohcitude. He nomi- 
nated Mr. Monroe, and the concurrence of the Senate 
in his appointment was unanimous. 

The contemporaneous missions of Mr. Jay to Great 
Britain, and of Mr. Monroe to France, are among the most 
memorable events in the history of this Union. Mr. Jay 
and Mr. Monroe, each within his own sphere of action, 
executed with equal ability the trust committed to him, in 
the spirit of his appointment and of his instructions.* 

Mr. Monroe was cordially received by the French Demo- 
crats, and he declared the fraternal friendship of his coun- 
try and her government for the French nation. But the 
minister's views were not in accordance with those of Pre- 
sident Washington, and towards the close of that great 
man's administration, he was recalled, and Charles C. 
Pinckney appointed in his place. Upon his return, Mr. 
Monroe thought proper to publish a vindication of himself, 
entitled " View of the Conduct of the Executive in the 
Foreign Affairs of the United States, connected with the 
Mission to the French Republic, during the years 1794, 
1795, and 1796." 

That neither the recall of Mr. Monroe from his mission 
to France, nor the publication of his volume, had any 
effect to weaken the confidence reposed in him by his fel- 
low-citizens, was manifested by his immediate election to 
the legislature, and soon afterwards to the office of governor 
of Virginia, in which he served for the term, limited by the 
constitution, of three years. In the mean time, the Di- 
rectory of France, with its Council of Five Hundred, and its 
Council of Elders, had been made to vanish from the scene, 

* John Quincy Adams. 



JAMES MONROE. 335 

by the magic talisman of a soldier's sword. The govern- 
ment of France, in point of form, was administered by a 
Triad of Consuls : in point of fact, by a successful warrior, 
then Consul for life : hereditary emperor and king of Italy, 
with a forehead burning for a diadem ; a soul inflated by 
victory ; and an imagination fired with visions of crowns 
and sceptres, in prospect before him. He had extorted, 
from the prostrate imbecility of Spain, the province of 
Louisiana, and compelled her, before the delivery of the 
territory to him, to revoke the solemnly stipulated privilege, 
to the citizens of the United States, of a deposit at New 
Orleans. A mihtary colony was to be settled in Louisiana, 
and the materials for an early rupture with the United 
States were industriously collected. The triumph of the 
republican party here, had been marked by the election of 
Thomas Jefferson to the presidency. 

Tiie transfer of Louisiana to France, the projected mili- 
tary colony, and the occlusion, at that precise moment, of 
the port of New Orleans, operated like an electric shock in 
this country. The pulse of the west beat, instantaneously, 
for war : and the antagonists of Mr. Jefferson, in Congress, 
sounded the trumpet of vindication to the rights of the 
nation ; and, as they perhaps flattered themselves, of down- 
fall to his administration. In this crisis, Mr. Jefferson, fol- 
lowing the example of his first predecessor, on a similar 
occasion, instituted a special and extraordinary mission to 
France ; for which, in the name of his country, and of the 
highest of human duties, he commanded, rather than in- 
vited, the services and self-devotion of Mr. Monroe. Nor 
did he hesitate to accept the perilous, and, at that time, 
most unpromising charge. He was joined, in the commis- 
sion extraordinary, with Robert R. Livingston, then resi- 
dent minister plenipotentiary, from the United States, in 
France, well known as one of the most eminent leaders of 
our revolution. Mr. Monroe's appointment was made ou 



336 JAMES MONROE. 

the 11th of January, 1803; and, as Louisiana was still in 
the possession of Spain, he was appointed also, jointly with 
Charles Pinckney, then minister plenipotentiary of the 
United States at Madrid, to an extraordinary mission to 
negotiate, if necessary, concerning the same interest there. 
The intended object of these negotiations was to acquire, 
by purchase, the island of New Orleans, and the Spanish 
territory east of the Mississippi. 

When Mr. Monroe arrived in France, all was changed in 
the councils of the Tuileries. The war between France 
and Britain was rekindling, and the article of most imme- 
diate urgency to the necessities of the first consul was 
money. The military colony of 20,000 veterans already 
assembled at Helvoet-Sluys, to embark for Louisiana, re- 
ceived another destination. The continent of America was 
relieved from the imminent prospect of a conflict with the 
modern Alexander, and Mr. Monroe had scarce!}^ reached 
Paris, when he and his colleague were informed that the 
French government had resolved, for an adequate compen- 
sation in money, to cede to the United States the whole of 
Louisiana. The acquisition, and the sum demanded for it, 
transcended the powers of the American plenipotentiaries, 
and the amount of the funds at their disposal ; but they 
hesitated not to accept the offer. The negotiation was con- 
cluded in a fortnight. The ratification of the treaty, with 
those of a convention appropriating part of the funds 
created by it to the adjustment of certain claims of citizens 
of the United States upon France, were within six months 
exchanged at Washington, and the majestic valley of the 
Mississippi, and the Rocky Mountains, and the shores of 
the Pacific Ocean, became integral parts of the North Ameri- 
can Union. 

From France, immediately after the conclusion of the 
treaties, Mr. Monroe proceeded to England, where he v.as 



JAMES MONROE. 337 

commissioned as the successor of Rufus King, in the cha- 
racter of minister plenipotentiary of the United States. 

Just before the departure of Mr. King, a convention had 
been proposed by him, in which Britain abandoned the pre- 
tension of right to impress seamen, which failed only by a 
captious exception for the narrow seas, suggested by a naval 
officer, then at the head of the admiralty. But after the 
war recommenced, the odious pretensions and oppressive 
practices of unlicensed rapine returned in its train. In the 
midst of his discussions with the British government on 
these topics, Mr. Monroe was called away to the discharge 
of his extraordinary mission to Spain. 

In the retrocession of Louisiana, by France to Spain, no 
limits of the province had been defined. It was retroceded 
with a reference to its original boundaries as possessed by 
France, but those boundaries had been a subject of alterca- 
tion between France and Spain, from the time when Louis 
the 14th had made a grant of Louisiana to Crozat. Napo- 
leon took this retrocession of the province, well aware of 
the gordian knot with which it was bound, and fully deter- 
mined to sever it with his accustomed solvent, the sword. 
His own cession of the province to the United States, how- 
ever, relieved him from the necessity of resorting to this 
expedient, and proportionably contracted in his mind the 
dimensions of the province. He ceded Louisiana to the 
United States without waiting for the delivery of posses- 
sion to himself, and used with regard to the boundary in his 
grant, the very words of the conveyance to him by Spain. 
The Spanish government solemnly protested against the 
cession of Louisiana to the United States, alleging that in 
the very treaty by which France had re-acquired the pro- 
vince, she had stipulated never to cede it away from her- 
self Soon admonished, however, of her own helpless 
condition, and encouraged to transfer her objections from 
the cession to the boundary, she withdrew her protest 



338 JAMES MONROE. 

against the whole transaction, and took ground upon the 
disputed extent of the province. The original claim of 
France had been from the Perdido east to the Rio Bravo 
west of the Mississippi. Mobile had been originally a 
French settlement, and all West Florida was as distinctly 
w^ithin the claim of France, as the mouth of the Mississippi 
first discovered by La Salle. Such was the understanding 
of the American plenipotentiaries, and of Congress, who 
accordinglj' authorized President Jefferson to establish a 
collection district on the shores, waters, and inlets of the 
bay and river Mobile, and of rivers both east and west of 
the same. But Spain on her part reduced the province of 
Louisiana to little more than the island of New Orleans. 
She assumed an attitude menacing immediate war ; re- 
fused to ratify a convention made under the eye of her own 
government at Madrid, for indemnifying citizens of the 
United States plundered under her authority during the 
preceding war ; harassed and ransomed the citizens of the 
Union and their property on the waters of Mobile ; and 
marched military forces to the borders of the Sabine, where 
they were met by troops of the United States, with whom 
a conflict was spared only by a temjiorary military conven- 
tion between the respective commanders. It was at this 
emergency that Mr. Monroe proceeded from London to 
Madrid to negotiate together with Mr. Pinckney upon this 
boundary, and for the purchase of the remnant of Spain's 
title to the territory of Florida. 

There in the space of five months, together with his col- 
league Charles Pinckney, he unfolded the principles and 
discussed the justice of his country's claim, in correspond- 
ence and conference with the Prince of Peace, and Don 
Pedro Cevallos, with great ability, but without immediate 
effect. In June, 1805, Mr. Monroe returned to his post at 
London, where new and yet more arduous labours awaited 
him. 



JAMES MONROE. 339 

From that period till the commencement of hostilities 
between the United States and Great Britain, the life of 
James Monroe was a continual conflict with British officials 
concerning the rights of his country. He was joined with 
William Pinckney in an extraordinary mission, but nothing 
could be effected by negotiation. At the close of 1807 he 
returned to the United States. 

After a short interval passed in the retirement of private 
life, he was again elected governor of Virginia, and upon 
the resignation of Robert Smith, was, in the spring of 1811, 
appointed by President Madison secretary of state. This 
office he continued to hold during the remainder of the 
double presidential term of Mr. Madison, wdth the exception 
of about six months at the close of the late war with Great 
Britain, when he discharged the then still more arduous 
duties of the war department. On the return of peace he 
was restored to the department of state. 

In both departments, his services were of vast import- 
ance to the country. He was the only efficient war 
minister during Mr. Madison's administration ; and when 
he ascertained that the British contemplated an attack 
upon New Orleans, he pledged his private credit in order 
to raise supplies for the defence. But for his energy and 
patriotic devotion, the means of resistance could not have 
been obtained. 

In 1816, Mr. Monroe received the nomination of the 
Democratic representatives in Congress for the presidency 
of the United States. Daniel D. Tompkins was nominated 
on the same ticket for the vice-presidency. Rufus King 
was the presidential candidate of the Federal party. The 
result of the election was the triumph of Monroe and 
Tompkins by a large majority. On the 4th of March, 
1817, Mr. Monroe was inaugurated. The liberal and con- 
ciliator}^ spirit of his address gave general satisfaction, Ind 
the end of bitter partisan disputes was anticipated. 



340 JAMES MONROE. 

President Monroe formed his cabinet by the following 
appointments : John Quincy Adams, of Massachusetts, 
secretary of state; William H. Crawford, of Georgia, 
secretary of the treasury ; John C. Calhoun, of South 
Carolina, secretary of war ; and William Wirt, of Virginia, 
attorney-general. Benjamin M. Crowninshield, of Massa- 
chusetts, was continued in the post of secretary of the 
navy, until November, 1818, when Smith Thompson, of 
New York, succeeded him. Return J. Meigs, of Ohio, was 
continued as postmaster-general until December, 1823, 
when John M'Lean, of Ohio, was appointed in his place. 
These were the only changes made in the cabinet during 
the whole eight years of President Monroe's administra- 
tion. 

Soon after his inauguration. President Monroe determined 
to examine personally the defences of the country. The 
laborious journey he made for this purpose occupied three 
months. The president was everywhere received with 
respect and affection ; and all facilities for communicating 
information concerning the different garrisons, arsenals, and 
depots were afforded him. He returned to Washington with 
a more complete knowledge of the condition of the country 
than any president had yet possessed. Congress gave the 
administration nearly a unanimous support, and it pro- 
ceeded steadily and vigorously. Its chief measure was a 
treaty with Spain by which Florida and the islands 
adjacent were acquired, in consideration of five million 
dollars. (October, 1820). Some troubles had occurred in 
that territory, which will be narrated in the life of General 
Jackson. 

In 1820, Messrs. Monroe and Tompkins were re-elected 
with almost unanimity, only one vote being cast against 
Monroe, and fourteen against Tompkins. Soon after the 
election. Congress assembled, and the question of admitting 
Missouri into the union as a slave state agitated the 



JAMES MONROE. 341 

country. The exciting question was not settled until 
March, 1821, when a compromise proposed by Mr. Clay 
was adopted, and Missouri was admitted as a state. The 
recognition of the independence of Mexico and some of the 
South American republics was the next important measure 
under this administration. The last year of Mr. Monroe's 
administration was distinguished by the visit to the United 
States of General de Lafayette, the friend of the country 
during the revolution. On the 3d of March, 1825, Mr. 
Monroe retired from office. 

Returning to his residence in Loudon county, Virginia, 
he was appointed a county magistrate. He was then 
deeply in debt. But Congress speedily relieved his em- 
barrassments by the adjustment of his claims. He was 
chosen a member of the convention called in 1829 to revise 
the constitution of Virginia, and unanimously elected to 
preside over its deliberations. Before the close of its 
labours, indisposition compelled him to retire, and in 1830 
he removed to New York city, where he died on the 4th 
of July, 1831, at the age of 72. 

Mr. Monroe possessed a striking personal appearance, 
being about six feet in stature, with strongly marked 
features, and blue, penetrating eyes. His bearing was 
amiable but dignified. He compensated for his want of 
quickness of apprehension, by the most unremitting labour. 
He was no orator, and but a tolerable writer. He was a 
statesman of the order of Castlereagh, poor in speech, but 
invaluable in action. The good wishes of his countrymen 
followed him to the close of his long and honourable career. 
40 



JOHN QUINCT ADAMS. 



A GREAT father seldom has a great son. This is a matter 
of common observation. But tlie rule so well established 
has some very remarkable exceptions. The English are 
still divided in opinion as to the superiority of Chatham, 
or his son ; and Americans will be found in the same con- 
dition upon the c[uestion, as to which President Adams was 
the greater man — the orator and diplomatist of the revolu- 
tion, or the orator, statesman, and scliolar of more recent 
times. They differed in talents and services; but each 
accomplished enough to prove himself a leader among men. 

John Quincy Adams was emphatically a child of the 
revolution, being the son of John Adams, one of the mo:^t 
influential of its promoters, and being born and educated 
amid its exciting scenes. He first saw the light in Boston 
on the 11th of July, 17G7. His mother taught him the 
rudiments of English, and he displayed wonderful quickness 
of apprehension and precocious ability. In 1778, when he 
was but eleven years of age, he accompanied his father to 
Paris, where he attended school for about a year and a half. 
In the mean time, he derived instruction from the conver- 
sation of John Adams, Dr. Franklin, and other persons of 
intellectual distinction. Father and son returned to America ; 
but the country could not dispense with the services of John 
Adams. He was successively appointed minister to Eng- 
land and Holland. He again, crossed the ocean, taking 
John Quincy with him. Young Adams was now placed at 

(342) 



JOHN QUINCY ADAMS. 345 

school, first at Amsterdam, and then at the University of 
Leyden. In July, 1781, he was appointed by the minister 
to Russia, Francis Dana, secretary of the legation, although 
but fourteen years old. He remained in the situation fourteen 
months, giving perfect satisfaction, and then, returning to 
Holland, resumed his studies at the Hague. After the con- 
clusion of peace, he accompanied his father to London, 
where the whole family was soon united. Fearful of losing 
the opportunity for academical studies he returned to the 
United States in 1785, and at the age of eighteen entered 
Cambridge University. He continued there three years, 
and graduated in 1788 with the highest honours. 

After leaving Cambridge, young Adams entered the office 
of Theophilus Parsons, who Avas then in the practice of law 
at Newburyport, and who afterwards for so many years 
filled with dignity and ability the office of chief justice of 
Massachusetts. Adams completed the usual term of pro- 
fessional study, and then commenced the practice of the law 
in Boston. 

But the country and the age had claims on John Quincy 
Adams, as well as on his father, for higher duties than 
"making writs," and "haranguing juries," and "being 
happy." 

The revolution in France, and the measures adopted by 
the allied sovereigns to arrest its progress, excited the 
liveliest interest among the people of the United States. 
But their sympathies ran in different channels, and very 
naturally took the hue of their party predilections. The 
Democrats, believing the French revolution to be the up- 
springing of the same principles which had triumphed here 
— a lawful attempt of an oppressed people to secure the 
exercise of inalienable rights — although shuddering at the 
excesses which had been perpetrated, still felt it to be our 
own cause, and insisted that we were in honour and duty 
bound to render all the assistance in our power, even to a 



346 JOHN QUINCY ADAMS. 

resort to arms, if need be. The Federalists, on the other 
hand, were alarmed at the anarchical tendencies in France. 
They were fearful that law, order, government, and society 
itself, would be utterly and speedily swept away, unless 
the revolutionary movement was arrested. Cherishing 
these apprehensions, they were disposed to favour the views 
of Great Britain and other European powers, and were 
anxious that the government of the United States should 
adopt some active measures to assist in checking what tliey 
could not but view as rapid strides to political and social 
anarchy. 

There was residing at this period, in Boston, a young 
and nearly briefless lawyer, whose views on these important 
matters differed materially from those entertained by both 
parties. It was John Quincy Adams. While he could not 
countenance the attempts of the allied powers to destroy 
the French republic, and re-establish a monarchy, he was 
equally far from favouring the turn which affairs were 
clearly taking in that unhappy country.- He evidently 
foresaw the French revolution would prove a failure ; and 
that it was engendering an influence which, unchecked, 
would be deeply injurious to American liberty and order. 
To counteract this tendency, he published in the Boston 
Centinel, in 1791, a series of articles, signed " Publicola," 
in which he discussed with great ability, the wild vagaries 
engendered among political writers in France, and which 
had been caught up by many in our own country. These 
articles attracted much attention both at home and abroad. 
They were republished in England as an answer to several 
points in Paine's " Rights of Man." So profound was the 
political sagacity they displayed, and so great the familiarity 
with public affairs, that they were by general consent 
attributed to the elder Adams. 

The younger Adams, in surveying the condition of the 
country at this critical period, became convinced it would 






JOHN QUINCT ADAMS. 347 

be a fatal step for the new government to take sides with 
either of the great parties in Europe, who were engaged in 
the settlement of their difficulties by the arbitrament of 
arms. However strongly our sympathies were elicited in 
behalf of the French republic — however we may have 
been bound in gratitude for the assistance rendered us 
during our revolutionary struggle, to co-operate with France 
in her defence of popular institutions — still, self-preserva- 
tion is the first law of nature. Mr. Adams saw that to 
throw ourselves into the melee of European conflicts, would 
prostrate the interests of the country, and peril the very 
existence of the government. These views he embodied in 
a series of articles, which he pul^lished in the Boston 
Centinel, in 1793, under the signature of "Marcellus." 
He insisted it was alike the dictate of duty and policy, 
that the United States should remain strictly neutral be- 
tween France and her enemies. These papers attracted 
general attention throughout the Union, and made a 
marked impression on the public mind. They were read 
by Washington, with expressions of the highest satis- 
faction; and he made particular inquiries respecting the 
author. 

On the 25th of April, 1793, Washington issued a pro- 
clamation announcing the neutrality of the United States 
between the belligerent nations of Europe. TJiis proclama- 
tion was not issued until after Mr. Adams's articles urging 
this course had been before the public for some time. It 
is an honourable testimony to the sagacity of his views, 
that Washington and the eminent men composing his 
cabinet adopted a policy which coincided so perfectly with 
opinions he had formed purely from the strength of his own 
convictions. The proclamation pleased neither of the belli- 
gerent nations in Europe. It aroused the enmity of both ; 
and laid open our commerce to the depredations of all 



34^ JOHN QUINCY ADAMS. 

parties, on the plea that the American government was 
inimical to their interests. 

In the winter of 1793 and 1794, the public mind had 
become highly excited from the inflammatory appeals in 
behalf of France, by citizen Genet, the French minister to 
the United States. A large portion of the Anti-Federal 
party took sides with Mr. Genet, against the neutral position 
of our government, and seemed determined to plunge the 
Union into the European contest, in aid of the French 
republic. 

It taxed the wisdom and skill of Mr. Jefferson, then 
secretary of state, to counteract the influence of the French 
minister, and prevent citizens of the United States from 
committing overt acts against the allied sovereigns, and 
embroiling tho Union in a foreign war. In this endeavour 
he was greatly assisted by the pen of Mr. J. Q. Adams. 
This gentleman wrote a series of essays for the public prints, 
under the signature of " Columbus," reviewing the course 
of Mr. Genet. In these articles, he pointed out, with great 
clearness, the principles of the law of nations applicable to 
the situation of the country in the neutral line of policy 
which had been wisely adopted. 

The political writings of the younger Adams had now 
brought him prominently before the public. They attracted 
the especial attention of Mr. Jefferson, who saw in them a 
vastness of comprehension, a maturity of judgment and 
critical discrimination, which gave large promise of future 
usefulness and eminence. Before his retirement from the 
state department, he commended the youthful statesman 
to the favourable regard of President Washington, as one 
pre-eminently fitted for public service. 

General Washington, although a soldier by profession, 
was a lover of peace. His policy, during his administration 
of the government, was pre-eminently pacific. Convinced 



JOHN QUINCT ADAMS. 319 

that, in the infant state of the Union, war with a foreipjn 
nation could result only in evil and ruin, he was anxious 
to cultivate the most friendly relations with foreign govern- 
ments, and to carry out, both in letter and spirit, the strict 
neutrality he had proclaimed. To declare and maintain 
these principles abroad, and to form political and commer- 
cial relations with European powers, Washington looked 
anxiously around for one fitted for a mission so important. 
His attention soon became fixed on John Quincy Adams. 
He saw in him qualities not only of deep political sagacity, 
and views of policy at unity with his own, but a familiarity 
with the languages and customs of foreign courts, which 
marked him as one every way calculated to represent our 
government with credit in the old world. He accordingly, 
in May, 1794, appointed Mr. Adams minister of the United 
States at the Hague. 

Mr. Adams presented himself at the Hague in the sum- 
mer or fall of 1794. Ten years before, he was there with 
his father — a lad, attending school. On his arrival in Hol- 
land, Mr. Adams found the affairs of that country in great 
confusion, in consequence of the French invasion. So diffi- 
cult was it to prosecute any permanent measures for the 
benefit of the United States, owing to the existing wars 
and the unsettled state of things in Europe, that after a 
few months he thought seriously of returning home. A 
report of this nature having reached President Washington, 
drew from him a letter to Vice-President John Adams, dated 
August 20, 1795, in which the following language occurs: — 

" Your son must not think of retiring from the path he 
is now in. His prospects, if he pursues it, are fair ; and I 
shall be much mistaken if, in as short a time as can well 
be expected, he is not found at the head of the diplomatic 
corps, be the government administered by whomsoever the 
people may choose." 



850 JOHN QUINCT ADAMS. 

This approbation of his proceedings thus far, and encou- 
ragement as to future success, from so high a source, un- 
doubtedly induced the younger Adams to forego his incHna- 
tion to withdraw from the field of diplomacy. He continued 
in Holland until near the close of Washington's administra- 
tion. That he was not an inattentive observer of the 
momentous events then transpiring in Europe, but was 
watchful and faithful in all that pertained to the welfare 
of his country, is abundantly proved by his official corres- 
pondence with the government at home. 

During his residence as minister at the Hague, Mr. Adams 
had occasion to visit London, to exchange the ratifications 
of the treaty recently formed with Great Britain, and to 
take measures for carrying its provisions into effect. It 
was at this time that he formed an acquaintance with Miss 
Louisa Catharine Johnson, daughter of Joshua Johnson, 
Esq., of Maryland, consular agent of the United States at 
London, and niece of Governor Johnson of Maryland, a 
judge of the Supreme Court of the United States, and a 
signer of the Declaration of Independence. The friendship 
they formed for each other, soon ripened into a mutual at- 
tachment and an engagement. They were married on the 
26th of July, 1797. It was a happy union. For more 
than half a century they shared each other's joys and sor- 
rows. In the mean time, the elder Adams had been elected 
president of the United States, in 1796. 

On entering upon the duties of the presidency, John 
Adams was greatly embnrrassed in regard to the line he 
should adopt towards his son. True, the younger Adams 
had been intrusted by Washington with an important em- 
bassy abroad, and had acquitted himself with great credit 
in his responsible station; but the father, with a delicacy 
highly honourable, hesitated continuing him in office, lest 
he might be charged with unworthy favouritism, and a dis- 
position to promote the interest of his family at the expense 



JOHN QUINCY ADAMS. 351 

of public good. In this exigency, not daring to trust his 
own judgment, lest its decisions might be warped by pa- 
rental solicitude, he resorted to the wisdom and experience 
of Washington. Writing him for advice on this subject, 
he received a reply, advising him to continue his son in 
office. 

President Adams, in agreement with this counsel, de- 
termined to allow his son to continue in Europe in the 
public capacity to which he had been promoted by Washing- 
ton. Shortly previous to the close of Washington's ad- 
ministration, he transferred the younger Adams from the 
Hague, by an appointment as minister plenipotentiary to 
Portugal, but before proceeding to Lisbon, his father, in the 
mean time having become president, changed his destina- 
tion to Berlin. He arrived in that city in the autumn of 
1797, and immediately entered upon the discharge of his 
duties as minister of the United States. In 1798, while 
retaining his office at Berlin, he was commissioned to form 
a commercial treaty with Sweden. During his residence at 
Berlin, Mr. Adams, while attending with unsleeping dili- 
gence to his public duties, did not forego the more congenial 
pursuits of literature. He cultivated the acquaintance of 
many eminent German scholars and poets, and manifested 
a friendly sympathy in their pursuits. 

To perfect his knowledge of the German language, Mr. 
Adams made a metrical translation of Wieland's Oberon 
into the English language. The publication of this work, 
which at one time was designed, was superseded by the ap- 
pearance of a similar translation by Sotheby. 

In the summer of 1800, Mr. Adams made a tour through 
Silesia. He was charmed with the inhabitants of that 
region, their condition and habits. In many respects he 
found them bearing a great similarity to the people of his 
own native New England. He communicated his impres- 
sions during this excursion, in a series of letters to a 
41 



352 JOHN QUINCY ADAMS. 

younger brother in Philadelphia. These letters were inte- 
resting, and were considered of great value at that time, in 
consequence of many important facts they contained in re- 
gard to the manufacturing establishments of Silesia. They 
were published, without Mr. Adams's knowledge, in the 
Port Folio, a weekly paper edited by Joseph Dennie, at 
Philadelphia. The series was afterwards collected and pub- 
lished in a volume, in London, and has been translated into 
German and French, and extensively circulated on the 
continent. 

Among other labours while at Berlin, Mr. Adams suc- 
ceeded in forming a treaty of amity and commerce with 
the Prussian government. The protracted correspondence 
with the Prussian commissioners, which resulted in this 
treaty, involving as it did the rights of neutral commerce, 
was conducted with consummate ability on the part of Mr. 
Adams, and received the fullest sanction of the government 
at home. 

The presidential contest in 1800 was urged with a 
warmth and bitterness, by both parties, which has not been 
equalled in any election since that period. It was the first 
time two candidates ever presented themselves to the people 
as rival aspirants for the highest honour in their gift. Both 
were good men and true — both were worthy of the confi- 
dence of the country. But Mr. Adams, weighed down by 
the unpopularity of acts adopted during his administration, 
and suffering under the charge of being an enemy to revo- 
lutionary France, and a friend of monarchical England, was 
distanced and defeated by his competitor. Mr. Jefferson 
was elected the third president of the republic, and was 
inaugurated on the 4th of March, 1801. One of the last 
acts of John Adams, before retiring from the presidency, 
was to recall his son from Berlin, that Mr. Jefferson might 
have no embarra.ssment in that direction. 

John Quincy Adams returned to the United States from 



JOHN QUINCY ADAMS. 353 

his first foreign embassy, in 1801, Arriving in the United 
States with distinguished honours gained by successful 
foreign diplomacy, Mr. Adams was not allowed to remain 
long in inactivity. In 1802, he was elected to the Senate 
of Massachusetts, from the Boston district. During his 
services in that body, he gave an indication of that inde- 
pendence, as a politician, which charac^:erized him through 
life, by his opposition to a powerful combination of banking 
interests, which was effected among his immediate con- 
stituents. Although his opposition was unavailing, yet it 
clearly showed that the integrity of the man was superior 
to the policy of the mere politician. But higher honours 
awaited him. In 1803, he was elected to the Senate of the 
United States, by the legislature of Massachusetts. Thus, 
at the early age of thirty-six years, he had attained to the 
highest legislative body of the Union. Young in years, 
but mature in talent and experience, he took his seat amid 
the conscript fathers of the country, to act a part which 
soon drew upon him the eyes of the nation, both in admi- 
ration and in censure. 

A few months after Mr. Adams's entrance into the Senate 
of the United States, a law was passed by Congress, at the 
suggestion of Mr. Jefferson, authorizing the purchase of 
Louisiana. Mr. Adams deemed this measure an encroach- 
ment on the Constitution of the United States, and opposed 
it on the ground of its unconstitutionality. He was one of 
six senators who voted against it. Yet when the measure 
had been legally consummated, he yielded it his support. 
In passing laws for the government of the territory thus 
obtained, the right of trial by jury was granted only in 
capital cases. Mr. Adams laboured to have it extended to 
all criminal offences. Before the territory had a repre- 
sentative in Congress, the government proposed to levy a 
tax on the people for purposes of revenue. This attempt 
met the decided opposition of Mr. Adams. He insisted it 



354 JOHN QUINCY ADAMS. 

would be an exercise of government, without the consent 
of the governed, which, to all intents, is a despotism. In 
1805, he laboured to have Congress j^ass a law levying a 
duty on the importation of slaves. This was the first 
puljlic indication of his views on the subject of slavery. 

But a crisis in his senatorial career at length arrived. 
The commerce of the United States had suftered greatly 
by " Orders in Council," and " Milan Decrees." Our ships 
were seized, conducted into foreign ports, and confiscated, 
with their cargoes. American seamen were impressed by 
British cruisers, and compelled to serve in a foreign navy. 
The American frigate Chesapeake, while near the coast of 
the United States, on refusing to give up four men claimed 
to be British subjects, was fired into by the English man- 
of-war Leopard, and several of her crew killed and wounded. 
These events caused the greatest excitement in the United 
States. Petitions, memorials, remonstrances, were poured 
in upon Congress from every part of the union. Mr. 
Jefferson endeavoured by embassies, negotiations, and the 
exertion of every influence in his power, to arrest these 
destructive proceedings, and obtain a redress of grievances. 
But all was in vain. At length he determined on an 
embargo, as the only means of securing our' commerce from 
the grasp of tlie unscrupulous mistress of the seas. An 
act to that effect was passed in December, 1807. This 
effectually prostrated what little foreign commerce had 
been left to the United States. In these proceedings Mr. 
Jefferson was stoutly opposed by the Federal party. 
Massachusetts, then the chief commercial state in the 
union, resisted with its utmost influence the Embargo 
Act, as pre-eminently destructive to its welfare, and looked 
to its senators and representatives in Congress to urge an 
opposition to the extreme. What course should Mr. 
Adams adopt? On the one hand, personal friendship, the 
party which elected him to the Senate, the immediate 



JOHN QUINCY ADAMS. 355 

interests of his constituents, called upon him to oppose the 
measures of the administration. On the other hand, more 
enlarged considerations presented themselves. The interest, 
the honour, the ultimate prosperity of the whole country 
— its reputation and influence in the eyes of the world — 
demanded that the government should be supported in its 
efforts to check the aggressions of foreign nations, and 
establish the rights of American citizens. In such an 
alternative John Quincy Adams could not hesitate. Turn- 
ing from all other considerations but a desire to promote the 
dignity and welfare of the union, he threw himself, without 
reserve, into the ranks of the administration party, and 
laboured zealously to second the measures of Mr. Jefferson. 

The legislature of Massachusetts disapproved the course 
of Mr. Adams. By a small majority of Federal votes, it 
elected another person to take his place in the Senate at 
the expiration of his term, and passed resolutions instruct- 
ing its senators in Congress to oppose the measures of Mr. 
Jefferson. Mr. Adams could not, consistently with his 
views of duty, obey these instructions ; and having no dis- 
position to represent a body whose confidence he did not 
retain, he resigned his seat in the Senate, in March, 1808. 

In 1804, on the death of President Willard, Mr, Adams 
was urged by several influential individuals, to be a candi- 
date for the presidency of Cambridge University. He 
declined the proffered honour. During the following year, 
however, he was appointed Professor of Rhetoric and Belles 
Lettres, in that institution. He accepted the office, on 
condition that he should be allowed to discharge its duties 
at such times as his services in Congress would permit. 
His inaugural address, on entering the professorship, was 
delivered on the 12th of June, 1806. His lectures on 
rhetoric and oratory were very popular. 

Mr. Adams continued his connexion with the university, 



356 JOHN QUINCT ADAMS. 

delivering lectures and conducting exercises in declamation, 
until July, 1809. 

Mr. Adams's devotion to literary pursuits was destined 
to an early termination. On the 4tli of March, 1809, Mr. 
Madison was inducted into the office of president of the 
United States. It was at that time far from being an 
enviable position. At home the country was rent into 
contending factions. Our foreign affairs were in a condition 
of the utmost perplexity, and evidently approaching a 
dangerous crisis. The murky clouds of war, which had 
for years overshadowed Europe, seemed rolling hither- 
ward, filling the most sanguine and hopeful migids with 
deep apprehension. Russia, under its youthful emperor, 
Alexander, was rising to a prominent and influential 
position among the nations of Europe. Mr. Madison 
deemed it of great importance that the United States 
should be represented at that court by some individual 
eminent alike for talents, experience, and influence. John 
Quincy Adams was selected for the mission. In March, 
1809, he was appointed minister to Russia, and the summer 
following, sailed for St. Petersburg. 

Mr. Adams was received with marked respect at the 
court of St. Petersburg. His familiarity with the French 
and German languages — the former the diplomatic language 
of Europe — his literary acquirements, his perfect knoAvledge 
of the political relations of the civilized world, his plain 
appearance, and republican simplicity of manners, in the 
midst of the gorgeous embassies of other nations, enabled 
him to make a striking and favourable impression on the 
Emperor Alexander and his court. 

During his residence in Russia, the death of Judge 
Gushing caused a vacancy on the bench of the supreme 
court of the United States, President Madison nominated 
Mr. Adams to the distinguished office. The nomination 



JOHN QUINCT ADAMS. 357 

was confirmed by the Senate, but he declined its accept- 
ance. 

While sojourning at St. Petersburg, Mr. Adams wrote a 
series of letters to a son at school in Massachusetts, on the 
value of the Bible, and the importance of its daily perusal. 
Since his decease they have been published in a volume, 
entitled "Letters of John Quincy Adams to his son, on the 
Bible and its teachings." Their purpose is the inculca- 
tion of a love and reverence for the Holy Scriptures, and a 
delight in their perusal and study. 

The influence which Mr. Adams had obtained at St. 
Petersburg, with the emperor and his court, was turned to 
the best account. It laid the foundation of those amicable 
relations which have ever characterized the intercourse of 
that government with the United States. To this source, 
also, is unquestionably to be attributed the offer, by the 
Emperor Alexander, of mediation between Great Britain 
and the United States. This offer was accepted by the 
American government, and Mr. Adams, in connexion with 
Messrs. Gallatin and Bayard, was appointed by the presi- 
dent to take charge of the negotiation. The latter gentle- 
men joined Mr. Adams at St. Petersburg, in July, 1813. 
Conferences were held by the commissioners with Count 
Romanzoff, the chancellor of the Russian empire, with a 
view to open negotiations. The British government, how- 
ever, refused to treat under the mediation of Russia; but 
proposed at the same time to meet the American commis- 
sioners either at London or Gottenburg. Messrs. Gallatin 
and Bayard withdrew from St. Petersburg in January, 1814, 
leaving Mr. Adams in the discharge of his duties as resident 
minister. The proposition of the British ministry to nego- 
tiate for peace, at London or Gottenburg, was accepted by 
the United States. Mr. Adams and Messrs. Bayard, Clay, 
Russell, and Gallatin, were appointed commissioners, and 
directed to proceed to Gottenburg for that purpose. Mr. 



358 JOHN QUINCT ADAMS. 

Adams received his instructions in April, 1814 ; and as soon 
as preparations for departure could be made, took passage 
for Stockholm. Learning there that the place for the meet- 
ing of the commissioners had been changed to Ghent, in 
Belgium, Mr. Adams proceeded to Gottenburg. From 
thence he proceeded immediately to Ghent, where he ar- 
rived on the 24 th of June. In the ensuing negotiation, Mr. 
Adams was placed at the head of the American commis- 
sioners. They were men of unsurpassed talents and skill, 
in whose hands neither the welfare nor the honour of the 
United States could suffer. In conducting this negotiation, 
they exhibited an ability, a tact, an understanding of inter- 
national law, and a knowledge of the best interests of their 
country, which attracted the favourable attention both of 
Europe and America. 

Having concluded their labours at Ghent by signing the 
treaty of peace, Mr. Adams, together with Messrs. Albert 
Gallatin and Henry Clay, was directed to proceed to London, 
for the purpose of entering into negotiations for a treaty of 
commerce with Great Britain. Before lea^ang the continent, 
Mr. Adams visited Paris, where he witnessed the return of 
Napoleon from Elba, and his meteoric career during the 
Hundred Days. Here he was joined in March, 1815, by 
his family, after a long and perilous journey from St. Peters- 
burg. On the 25th of May, Mr. Adams arrived in London 
and joined Messrs. Gallatin and Clay, who had already 
entered upon the preliminaries of the proposed commercial 
convention with Great Britain. In the mean time, Mr. 
Adams had received official notice of his appointment as 
minister to the court of St. James. On the 3d of July, 
1815, the convention for regulating the commercial inter- 
course between the United States and Great Britain was 
concluded, and duly signed. It was afterwards ratified by 
both governments, and has formed the basis of commerce 
and trade between the two countries to the present time. 



JOHN QUINCT ADAMS. 359 

At the conclusion of these negotiations, Messrs. Galkxtin 
and Clay returned to the United States, and Mr. Adams 
remained in London, in his capacity as resident minister. 

James Madison, after serving his country eight years as 
president, in a most perilous period of its history, retired 
to private life, followed by the respect and gratitude of the 
people of the United States. He was succeeded by James 
Monroe, who was inaugurated on the 4th of March, 1817. 
Mr. Monroe was a politician of great moderation. It was 
his desire, on entering the presidency, to heal the unhappy 
dissensions which had distracted the country from the com- 
mencement of its government, and conciliate and unite the 
conflicting political parties. In forming his cabinet, he con- 
sulted eminent individuals of different parties, in various 
sections of the union, expressing these views. 

In carrying out his plans of conciliation. President 
Monroe selected John Quincy Adams for the responsible 
post of secretary of state. Mr. Adams had never been an 
active partisan. In his career as senator, both in Massa- 
chusetts and in Washington, during Mr. Jefferson's adminis- 
tration, he had satisfactorily demonstrated his ability to rise 
above party considerations, in the discharge of great and 
important duties. And his long absence from the country 
had kept him free from personal party, and sectional bias, 
and peculiarly fitted him to take the first station in the 
cabinet of a president aiming to unite his countrymen in 
fraternal bonds of political amity. 

On receiving notice of his appointment to this responsible 
office, Mr. Adams, with his family, embarked for the United 
States, on board the packet ship, and landed in New York 
on the 6th of August, 1817. A few days after his arrival, 
a public dinner was given Mr. Adams, in Tammany Hall, 
New York. A public dinner was also given him on his 
arrival in Boston. 

John Quincy Adams took up his residence at Washing- 
42 



360 JOHN QUINCY ADAMS. 

ton, and entered upon his duties as secretary of state, in 
September, 1817. During the eight years of President 
Monroe's administration, Mr. Adams discharged the duties 
of the state department, with a fidehty and success which 
received not only the unquahfied approbation of the presi- 
dent, but of the whole country. To him that office was no 
sinecure. His labours were incessant. He spared no pains 
to qualify himself to discuss, with consummate skill, what- 
ever topics legitimately claimed his attention. The presi- 
dent, the cabinet, the people, re230sed implicit trust in his 
ability to promote the interests of the nation in all matters 
of dij)lomacy, and confided unreservedly in his pure Ame- 
rican feelings and love of country. Perfectly familiar as 
he was with the political condition of the world, Mr. Mon- 
roe intrusted him, without hesitation, with the manage- 
ment of the foreign policy of the government, during his 
administration. 

Among his acts as secretary of state was the conclusion 
of several very important treaties, of which that for the 
acquisition of Florida was the most remarkable. 

Before the close of Mr. Monroe's administration, an 
exciting election occurred. The Eastern States brought 
forward John Quincy Adams as a candidate for the presi- 
dency. Henry Clay, General Andrew Jackson, and Wil- 
liam H. Crawford were nominated as rival candidates, all 
of them holding nearly the same political creed. 

It had long been foreseen that a choice of president 
would not be effected by the people. The result verified 
this prediction. Of two hundred and sixty-one electoral 
votes. General Jackson received ninety-nine, Mr. Adams 
eighty-four, Mr. Crawford forty-one, and Mr. Clay thirty- 
seven. Neither of the candidates having received a 
majority in the electoral colleges, the election devolved on 
the House of Representatives. This took place on the 9th 
of February, 1825. 



JOHN QUINCT ADAMS. 361 

Mr. Adams received a majority of the votes cast, and 
was declared duly elected, much to the indignation of 
General Jackson's friends. John C. Calhoun, of South 
CaroHna, had been chosen vice-president by the people. 

On the 4th of March, 1825, Mr. Adams was inaugurated, 
his venerable father, the ex-president, being alive at the 
time. The cabinet was formed by the appointment of 
Henry Clay, of Kentucky, secretary of state ; Richard 
Rush, of Pennsylvania, secretary of the treasury; James 
Barbour, of Virginia, secretary of war ; Samuel L. Southard, 
of New Jersey, secretary of the navy, and William Wirt, 
attorney-general. 

The administration of Mr. Adams as president of the 
United States, commenced on the 4th of March, 1825, and 
continued four years. A combination having taken place 
immediately after the election, of a majority of the friends 
of Mr. Crawford with those of General Jackson, it was soon 
apparent that the new administration was destined to meet 
with a systematic and violent opposition. Every effort on 
the part of Mr. Adams, to conciliate his opponents, and to 
conduct the public affairs with integrity and usefulness, 
proved ineffectual to turn the torrent of popular opinion 
which set steadily against him. In the third year of his 
term the administration was in the minority in both 
branches of Congress, and the opposition being^ concentrated 
on General Jackson as a candidate for president, he was in 
1828 elected by a large majority over Mr. Adams. 

Many important measures of internal improvement 
were adopted during Mr. Adams's administration, while the 
management of foreign affairs, in the able hands of Henry 
Clay, was remarkable for its sagacity and liberal spirit. 

After the inauguration of General Jackson, Mr. Adams 
retired to Quincy, where he might have passed the remain- 
der of his days in the quiet enjoyments of the social 
circle. Cut his friends would not permit him to remain in 



362 JOHN QUINCY adams. 

retirement. He was nominated fQr Congress, and returned 
by a vote nearly unanimous. From that time forward, for 
seventeen years, he occupied the post of representative in 
Congress from the Plymouth district in Massachusetts, with 
unswerving fidelity and the highest honour. 

Mr. Adams took his seat in the House of Representa- 
tives without ostentation, in December, 1831. His appear- 
ance there produced a profound sensation. It was the first 
time an ex-president had ever entered that Hall in the 
capacity of a member. He was received with the highest 
marks of respect. 

The degree of confidence reposed in Mr. Adams was 
manifested by his being placed at once at the head of the 
committee on manufactures. This is always a responsible 
station ; but it was peculiarly so at that time. The whole 
union was highly agitated on the subject of the tariff. 
The friends of domestic manufacturQS at the North insisted 
upon high protective duties, to sustain the mechanical and 
manufacturing interests of the country against a ruinous 
foreign competition. The Southern States resisted these 
measures as destructive to their interests, and remonstrated 
with the utmost vehemence against them — in which they 
were joined by a large portion of the Democratic party 
throughout the North. Mr. Adams, with enlarged views 
of national unity and general prosperity, counselled 
moderation to both parties. As chairman of the committee 
on manuftictures, he strove to produce such a compromise 
between the conflicting interests, as should yield each section 
a fair protection, and restore harmony and fraternity among 
the people. 

Although elected to the House of Representatives as a 
Whig, and usually acting with that party, yet Mr. Adams 
would never acknowledge that fealty to party could justify 
a departure from the conscientious discharge of duty. He 
went with his party as far as he believed his party was 



JOHN QUINCY ADAMS. 363 

right and its proceedings calculated to promote the welfare 
of the country. But no party claims, no smiles nor frowns, 
could induce him to sanction any measure which he be- 
lieved prejudicial to the interests of the people. Hence, 
during his congressional career, the Whigs occasionally 
found him a decided opposer of their policy and measures, 
on questions where he deemed they had mistaken the true 
course. In this he was but true to his principles, charac- 
ter, and whole past history. It was not that he loved his 
political party or friends less, but that he loved what he 
viewed as conducive to the welfiire of the nation, more. 

But the most remarkable effort of Mr. Adams in Con- 
gress was his resolute advocacy of the right of petition in 
regard to slavery. During the years 1836 and 1837, he pre- 
sented hundreds of petitions upon that subject, and excited 
a perfect storm of excitement among the southern members. 
All attempts to intimidate him were ineffectual, and he un- 
dauntedly continued his course of action in opposition to 
slavery. His speeches on every subject were marked with 
fervid eloquence ; but on this, he evmced astonishing energy 
of feeling. 

He distinguished himself especially on the organization 
of the twenty-sixth Congress, in December, 1839, when 
difficulties of a novel character occurred, in consequence of 
disputed seats from the state of New Jersey, which pre- 
vented for many days the choice of a speaker. On that 
occasion Mr. Adams was chosen, by unanimous consent, 
chairman of the house while it was in a state of confusion 
and disorder. By his skill and commanding influence, he 
was enabled to calm the turbulent elements of a disorgan- 
ized house, and to bring about a settlement of the difficulties 
which threatened a dissolution of the government. 

During Mr. Van Buren's administration, Mr. Adams, 
then seventy-four years old, appeared in the Supreme 
Court, and made a powerful appeal on behalf of the " Ami- 



364 JOHN QUINCY adams. 

stad negroes," who were set at liberty in consequence of 
his efforts. 

Mr. Adams was destined to meet death at his post in 
Washington. On the 20th of November, 1846, he expe- 
rienced the first stroke of the disease which terminated his 
Hfe. He was stricken with paralysis, and confined for 
several weeks. On the 21st of February, 1848, while voting 
for a resolution returning thanks to several generals who 
had distinguished themselves in the Mexican war, he was 
again struck with paralysis. The House adjourned amid 
much excitement. Mr. Adams was laid in the speaker's 
room. On all sides the deepest sorrow was displayed. The 
" old man eloquent" lingered until the evening of the 23d, 
when the spirit left its mortal tenement. The last words 
of Mr. Adams were : " This is the end of earth — lam caatentr 
He was then nearly eighty-one years of age. 

In person, Mr. Adams was rather short in stature, and 
portly. His countenance indicated a firm will, a penetra- 
ting intellect, and a cheerful temper. His manners were 
rather awkward and cold. His private character was spotless, 
and marked with the Christian virtues. A fearless, independ- 
ent spirit was as much his characteristic as it was his father's. 
He followed his convictions of right on all occasions, and 
under all circumstances. As a statesman, he was wise and 
energetic ; as an orator, he was brilliant, fluent, and co- 
pious ; as a writer, he was rather diffuse, but still forcible ; 
{is a scholar, his stores of knowledge were unsurpassed 
among his countrymen. His writings, including his Diary, 
are very voluminous, and are worthy of the study of every 
American. Mr. Adams left a number of children, some of 
whom have become distinguished in the political world. 



I 



<r ■<* ^^ t)- 




ANDREW JACKSON. 



When the politicians of the North had become wearied 
of what they called the Virginia domination, they looked 
o.bout for a man who possessed sufficient popularity to 
override caucuses. They fixed upon the hero of the 
Creek war and of New Orleans — General Andrew Jackson, 
of Tennessee — a man combining all the elements essential 
to success — indomitable energy, strong sense, honest deter- 
mination, and a splendid military rej)utation. 

The parents of Andrew Jackson emigrated from Ireland 
to South Carolina in 1765, bringing with them two sons, 
named Hugh and Robert. Andrew was born at the Wax- 
haw settlement, about forty-five miles above Camden, on 
the 15th of March, 1767. Andrew's father died about two 
years after his emigration, leaving the three boys to the 
care of the mother, who executed the arduous task of 
nurturing her children in a manner that reflected the 
highest credit upon her persevering fortitude, and exem- 
plary devotedness to the exercise of the best impulses of 
the human heart. Her pecuniary resources were limited ; 
yet, by judicious management, she was enabled to give her 
two eldest sons the rudiments of a common education. 
Andrew she designed for the ministry : and, with this view, 
he was admitted as a student in an academical institution, 
where the languages and the higher branches of literature 
were taught. Here he commenced the study of the classics; 

(3C7) 



3G8 ANDREW JACKSON. 

and he would probably have proceeded to efifectuate the 
object designed, had he not been interrupted by a train of 
events which constitute the brightest era in American 
history. We allude to the war of the revolution. The 
history of the world furnishes no parallel, in which a 
contest has been maintained between high-handed oppres- 
sion, and a total disregard of the rights of man on one 
part, and a determined and persevering resistance of the 
oppressed on the other, and which terminated so gloriously, 
as is exhibited in the revolutiontiry struggle of our fathers. 
No portion of the colonies suffered more from British inva- 
sion, than the Southern States. A considerable portion of 
them was for a time completely overrun, and subjected to 
the cruelties and indignities of a merciless soldiery. The 
eldest brother of Andrew joined the army, and was killed 
at the battle of Stono. Andrew Jackson, with his only 
surviving brother, joined the American forces soon after, in 
defence of their country and their homes, the former being 
only fourteen years of age. 

The southern colonies were, at this period, extremely 
defenceless. Lord Cornwallis, the commander of the 
British forces, found but little resistance in the commission 
of his depredations, from those whose lives and liberties he 
was trampling in the dust ; consequently, he left the coun- 
try, and proceeded to the' north, in pursuit of a more ex- 
tensive field for the exercise of his exterminating propen- 
sities, taking the precaution, however, of leaving behind him 
a band of his myrmidons, sufliciently numerous to awe the 
vanquished into sul3Jection. On the departure of Corn- 
wallis, the inhabitants of Waxhaw, who had been dispersed 
by his troops, ventured again to return and repair the rums 
of the place, and take measures for their defence. Camden 
was at this period in the possession of Lord Rawdon, whose 
vigilance, worthy of a better cause, was awakened by news 
that the inhabitants of "VVaxhaw, whom he supposed to 



ANDREW JACKSON. 369 

have been effectually exterminated, were again preparing 
for defensive operations. It is well known, that in this 
contest the Americans were considered as rebels, who had 
raised the standard of revolt, and set at defiance the supre- 
macy of their legitimate sovereign. That interchange of 
courtesies, usually practised by belligerent nations, was 
entirely dispensed with; consequently, the contest was 
maintained, on the part of Great Britain, with a spirit of 
barbarity, and cold-blooded extermination. Actuated by 
these principles, Lord Rawdon availed himself of the as- 
sistance of the American Tories, whom he despatched with 
a detachment of British dragoons, under the command of 
Major Coffin, to the destruction of Waxhaw. The inhabi- 
tants were determined to defend themselves, though the 
prospect of ultimate success was nearly hopeless. They 
assembled, and were intrenching themselves in their church, 
when they were suddenly surprised by the British troops. 
Eleven of their number were taken prisoners, and the 
residue escaped. Among the latter were Andrew Jackson 
and his brother. They were captured, however, on the 
ensuing day, and an incident then occurred, which developed 
the germings of a spirit, which has since prompted its pos- 
sessor to the accomplishment of deeds of noble daring. 
Every species of indignity was practised upon the American 
prisoners, and, with other ill-treatment, young Jackson was 
ordered to clean the boots of a British officer. He indig- 
nantly refused to obey the debasing command, and de- 
manded the treatment due to a prisoner of war. Tho 
officer, enraged at the boldness of the refusal, made a violent 
pass with his sword at the head of the youth, which he 
parried with his hand, and received a severe wound in con- 
l sequence. This may, to many, seem a trifling incident ; 
I but when we reflect that he was only fourteen years of age, 
f and the prisoner of men who butchered their opponents 
I with a recklessness unknown in the annals of modern war- 
! 43 



d/0 ANDREW JACKSON. 

fare, his manly firmness and exalted sense of honour cannot, 
it is believed, fail to elicit the meed of admiration. 

The fate of his brother was more tragical. He was 
severely wounded upon the head, after being taken pri- 
soner; and in this condition he was, with his brother 
Andrew, thrown into prison, and confined by the order of 
his captors, in a separate cell. Here he remained neglected, 
his wounds undressed, shut out from the assistance and 
sympathy of a single individual who could have extended 
to him the hand of relief, till an exchange of prisoners took 
place, when he was returned to die under his mother's roof. 
The neglect of his wound while in prison, produced an in- 
flammation of the brain, which terminated in death. We 
cannot here forbear paying a small tribute to the memory 
of the excellent mother of Mr. Jackson. She had re- 
mained in Europe, till British oppression threatened to 
overwhelm her family. She then, with her husband and 
children, sought an asylum on the American shores ; but 
even here the same oppressors followed her. A lone widow, 
in a land of strangers, she succeeded in rearing her children 
to the dawn of manhood, only to see them fall by the hands 
of a merciless enemy. The last efforts of her life were 
spent in mitigating the sufferings, and extending relief to 
the prisoners who were captured in her neighbourhood : — 
but when she saw her children fall — those whom in the 
ardour of maternal affection she had so fondly nurtured 
— the ties which bound her to earth were broken, and the 
grave closed upon her as it had done upon her murdered 
ofispring. 

Mr. Jackson, at the age of fifteen, found himself alone 
in the world, a sad spectator of the desolations that had 
visited his family. Divorced from every living being with 
whom he could sympathize as a kinsman, he might speak 
in the emphatic language of the chieftain, the last of whose 
relatives had been slain in battle, " That not a droj) of his 



ANDREW JACKSON. 371 

blood ran in the veins of any living creature." The sud- 
den extinction of his family bore heavilj^ upon him ; his 
sufferings and imprisonment had impaired his constitution ; 
and, to complete the measure of his misfortunes, he was 
violently seized with the small-pox, which nearly termi- 
nated his life. The vigour of his constitution, however, 
triumphed over the virulence of his disease, and restored 
him again to health. He succeeded to the patrimony of 
his father, which, though small, would, with prudent 
management, have enabled him to complete his studies, and 
to enter upon the duties of mature life with many pecuniary 
advantages. But those endowments which serve to elevate 
men to distinction, are seldom found connected with talents 
of economy in money matters. At least, it was thus with 
Mr. Jackson. Generous to a fault, he soon reduced his 
estate to a diminutiveness, which threw him at once upon 
the resources of his own mind,- and compelled him to become 
the architect of his own fortunes. He resumed his literary 
pursuits at tlie age of sixteen, under the tutelage of Mr. 
M'Culloch, and endeavoured, by severe application to his 
studies, to restore what he had lost by various interruptions. 
With him he completed the study of the languages, pre- 
liminary to his entrance at the university ; but the dimi- 
nution of his pecuniary resources induced him to relinquish 
his original design of acquiring a classical education. At 
the age of seventeen he commenced the study of law at 
Salisbury, North Carolina, in the office of Spruce M'Kay, 
Esq., and completed it under the supervision of John 
Stokes, Esq., both lawyers of distinction, and was admitted 
a practitioner at the bar of that state in 1786. He prac- 
tised in the courts of the state two years; but not findino- 
professional prospects sufficiently flattering to induce him 
to remain, he resolved to push his fortunes in the west. 

The present State of Tennessee was, at this period, a 
territorial government of the United States, called the 



372 ANDREW JACKSON. 

South West Territory, having been recently organized by 
Congress. The chmate was salubrious, the soil was fertile, 
and it was rapidly advancing, from a wild region, to a state 
of civilization. Here we find Mr. Jackson in 1788. The 
honourable Judge M'Nairy was appointed judge of this ter- 
ritory in the fall of this year, and was accompanied by Mr. 
Jackson to Nashville, at which place they arrived in Octo- 
ber, when the first court was holden. He here found him- 
self among a people widely different in manners, customs, 
and habits, from those he had recently left. In the older 
states, when one generation of inhabitants has followed 
another in regular succession, there are always some dis- 
tinguishing characteristics in the whole population. But 
in the new states, an established character in the people 
would hardly be discoverable, if we excej)t energy and 
personal independence. In those parts of the republic 
which have been settled for two centuries, a family, a 
moneyed, or a landed aristocracy, can always be discovered. 
The many become subservient to the few, and subjugate 
their minds to those who, by wealth or power, have obtained 
an ascendancy over them. In such a state of society, an 
insulated being like Andrew Jackson, without the influence 
of friends to aid him, or funds to procure them, could hardly 
hope, with the most exalted intellect, to arrive at a station 
either of emolument or profit. Circumstances are widely 
different in the new states. Drawn together from different 
sections of an extensive country, by motives of interest, of 
power, or of fame, each individual may almost be said to 
make a province by himself. In such a situation, the most 
energetic character becomes the object of the greatest 
popular favour. Mr. Jackson was well calculated to move 
in this sphere of action. Without any extrinsic advantages 
to promote his advancement, he had solely to rely upon 
intrinsic worth, and decision of character, to enable him to 
rise rapidly. He commenced the practice of law in Nash- 



ANDREW JACKSON. 373 

ville, at the age of twenty-one, and soon distinguished him- 
self among his competitors. His stern integrity and unre- 
mitting attention to business recommended him to the 
notice of government, and procured for him the appoint- 
ment of attorney-general of the territory. This office he 
sustained for a considerable length of time, with much 
reputation to himself. 

The South West Territory, in 1796, was admitted a 
sovereign and independent state into the Union, and took 
the name of Tennessee. The people were then called upon 
to exercise a highly responsible act of self-government — 
that of forming a constitution, as the supreme law of the 
state. Mr. Jackson was chosen a member of the conven- 
tion, called to discharge this important duty. Although 
he had become known to the most distinguished citizens of 
the country, his exertions in this convention brought him 
into more universal notice, by the distinguished part he 
took upon this important subject. The course of his studies 
had previously led him to the investigation of the science 
of government, from the earliest ages down to the period 
in which he lived. With the rise, progress, and termina- 
tion of the ancient repuljlics, he had made himself familiarly 
acquainted ; he had witnessed the operation of the American 
constitution, and those of the different states, from their 
first establishment to the period in which he acted. With 
a mind thus prepared to meet the important discussion, he 
took lead in the debates upon the different articles of the 
proposed constitution. To those who are acquainted with 
the constitution of the state of Tennessee, the precision 
with which the legislative, the judiciary, and executive 
powers are designated ; the care manifested in securing to 
the people their civil rights ; the freedom allowed in the 
exercise of the rights of conscience, must be obvious, and 
much credit is due to Mr. Jackson, for his efforts in pro- 
ducing so desirable a result. As a ];)roof of their approba- 



374 ANDREW JACKSON. 

tion of his services, the people of Tennessee elected him 
their first representative in Congress. His popularitj'^ con- 
tinued to increase, and in 1797 he was elected to the Senate 
of the United States. His congressional life was distin- 
guished for a firm adherence to republican principles; and 
in the Senate, he voted for the repeal of the alien and 
sedition laws. His affairs in Tennessee requiring his atten- 
tion, induced him to resign his seat in the Senate before the 
session closed. He accordingly returned ; and soon after, 
contrary to his inclinations, he was appointed judge of the 
Supreme Court. After discharging its duties for a while, 
he resigned the station, and retired to private life. 

Mr. Jackson had received the appointment of major- 
general of the Tennessee militia, at the time of the admis- 
sion of that state into the union; and he held that office 
when war was declared against Great Britain in 1812. 
He was first called into the field to act against the Indians. 
The great Tecumseh, having united a number of the 
northern tribes to check the progress of the x\mericans, 
visited the southern Indians early in 1812, to instigate 
them to begin hostilities. 

But, nothing had so powerful effect in exciting the 
liostiHties of the Creek, Alabama, and Seminole Indians, 
against the borderers of the South West Territory, as the 
promises, bribery, and corrupting influence of British and 
Spanish emissaries. With their hereditary hatred against 
the Americans, added to the enthusiasm excited by Tecum- 
seh, and the liberal aid of the British and Spanish govern- 
ments, these powerful tribes, at the commencement of the 
last war, were prepared to extend over our western frontiers 
all the devastation and horrors of savage hostility. The 
states of Tennessee and Georgia, from their vicinity to the 
extensive country inhabited by the Creeks, were more 
immediately exposed to Indian ravages. Familiarized to 
their unrelenting barbarity, the citizens of these states 



ANDREW JACKSON. 375 

were fully aware, that nothing but a war of extermination 
against the Creeks, would protect their own settlements on 
the frontiers from destruction, and their families from 
inhuman butchery. 

Such was the situation of our national relations, when 
the acts of Congress of the 6th February, and July, 1812, 
authorizing the president to accept the services of fifty 
thousand volunteers, were promulgated. On receipt of 
intelligence relating to the passage of these acts. General 
Jackson published an energetic address to the militia of 
his division, which drew two thousand five hundred of 
them to his standard, and without delay he made a tender 
of their services to the government, which tender was 
accepted. The detachment having been embodied and 
organized, was ordered to proceed by water to New 
Orleans, 

Subsequently to his departure. General Jackson was 
ordered to halt near Natchez, and in compliance with it, he 
took a position in the neighbourhood of that city. Here, 
while attending to the health and discipline of the corps, 
he received a laconic mandate from the war department, 
Commanding him to dismiss his volunteers, and deliver all 
public property in his possession to General Wilkinson, 
then commanding the military district in which they were 
stationed. This order he disobeyed, as he believed that 
the government was unacquainted with the situation of 
the troops. They had been induced to go hundreds of 
miles from home, and were now suddenly dismissed, totally 
unprovided with the means for reaching their families. 
Soon afterwards, General Jackson determined to dismiss 
his troops, but also to retain a sufficient quantity of tlie 
public property to enable them to get back to Tennessee. 
He returned at their head, shared all their toils and 
dangers, and saw them separate in good spirits. 

The Creeks commenced hostilities with the shocking 



376 ANDREW JACKSON. 

massacre at Fort Mimms, on the 30th of August, 1813. 
Weatherford, a noted chief, with six hundred Indians, 
surprised the fort, burned it, and butchered about two 
hundred and fifty persons. 

On the receipt of this disastrous intelhgence, the inhabit- 
ants of Tennessee adopted the most energetic measures to 
protect the borderers, and avenge the massacre at Fort 
Mimms. The legislature of the state convened towards the 
close of September, and authorized Governor Blount to call 
into immediate service three thousand five hundred of the 
militia, and voted a large sum for their support. The legis- 
lature, and indeed the whole population of Tennessee, fixed 
their hopes upon General Jackson. The confidence of all 
in him was unlimited. It had long been his opinion, that 
the only effectual mode of warfare against the savages, 
was to carry war into the heart of their country. General 
Wayne many years since, and General Harrison more 
recently, had evinced the correctness of this opinion. The 
legislature accorded with him in sentiment, and the com- 
mand of the intended expedition devolved upon him. He 
was ordered by Governor Blount to call out two thousand 
militia, and to rendezvous at Fayetteville. A part of this 
detachment consisted of the Tennessee volunteers, who 
had the preceding spring returned from Natchez. Upon 
the 4 th of October, 1813, the day aj^pointed, the troops 
promptly repaired to the place of rendezvous. Colonel 
Coffee, in the mean time, had raised five hundred mounted 
volunteers, and was authorized to augment his force by 
adding to it the volunteer mounted riflemen who might 
offer their services. On the 7th of October, General 
Jackson repaired to the rendezvous of Fayetteville, and 
with his corps commenced his march for the Creek country. 
Colonel Coffee proceeded with his cavalry and mounted 
riflemen towards the frontiers, and stationed himself near 
Huntsville. In the Creek nation were many natives in 



ANDREW JACKSON. 377 

amity with the United States. From them, important 
information was obtained, and essential service was rendered 
by them to our troops. On the 8th, Colonel Coffee 
informed General Jackson by express, that from informa- 
tion derived from Indian runners, the hostile Creeks were 
collecting in great force; and intended simultaneously to 
attack the frontiers of Georgia and Tennessee. 

General Jackson, on the 10th, put his corps in motion, 
and by great exertions reached Huntsville the same day, 
a distance of forty miles. Colonel Coffee had reached the 
Tennessee river, and General Jackson overtook him the 
next day, and united with his regiment upon the bank of 
the river. He then despatched Colonel Coffee with his 
mounted corps to explore the Tombigbee river, while he 
encamped his own division upon the Tennessee, and com- 
menced vigorous operations in preparing them for active 
service. In the camp of General Jackson the commissary 
department was very defective, and he depended upon 
various contractors for casual rather than regular supplies 
of provisions. On investigation, an alarming deficiency 
was found to exist. General Jackson, by measures the 
most efficient, and by entreaties the most urgent, endea- 
voured to procure a supply. Undaunted himself, he set an 
example of cheerfulness before his followers, and for a time 
dispelled their apprehensions. 

At this critical jDcriod, information was received that the 
Creeks were embodied near the Ten Islands on the Coosa. 
Collecting what provisions could be obtained, he com- 
menced his march upon the 18th, for Thompson's Creek. 
His route led through a wild and mountainous region, which 
was nearly impervious to the passage of his army. He 
arrived there on the 22d, and remained until certain 
information was received that the Creeks would soon com- 
mence operations upon the Coosa. Colonel Dyer had been 
previously sent with a detachment to attack the village of 
U 



378 ANDREW JACKSON. 

Li ttafu tehee, on a branch of the Coosa. He took the place 
with a trilling loss on his part, and brought back with him 
twenty-nine prisoners of the hostile Creeks. The scouting 
parties now began to bring in prisoners, and cattle, and 
corn taken from the enemy. The main body of the army 
was encamped about thirteen miles from Tallushatches, 
where the Creeks in large numbers had assembled with ' 
hostile preparations, and had taken a position at that 
place, situated on the opposite shore of the Coosa. 

Early in November, General Coffee was detached, with 
900 men, to attack the Creek encampment. The Indians 
made a gallant resistance, and refused quarter. After an 
obstinate conflict, they were almost annihilated. Two 
hundred of their warriors fell in this battle. The loss of 
the Tennesseeans was five killed and thirty wounded. 

The Tennessee forces, at the commencement of the cam- 
paign, in the Creek nation, in 1813, consisted of two divi- 
sions — one of West Tennessee, commanded by General 
Jackson, the other of East Tennessee, commanded by 
General Cocke. Major-General Thomas Pinckney, of the 
United States army, was commander-in-chief of the mili- 
tary district in which these troops were organized. The 
decisive victory at Tallushatches, and the total discomfiture 
of the savages of that station, induced General Jackson to 
adopt the most efficient measures for prosecuting the en- 
couraging success the army had there met with, by more 
important operations. To accomplish these, he sent an ex- 
press, on the 4 th of November, to Brigadier-General White, 
of General Cocke's division, who was only twenty-five miles 
distant, ordering him, with the troops under his command, 
to form a junction with him at Fort Strother, which he had 
established as a depot. His object in forming this junc- 
tion, was to augment his forces to such an amount, as to 
enable him to proceed with confidence in attacking the 
enemy, and leave a force in the rear sufficient to protect 



ANDREW JACKSON. 379 

the sick and guard the baggage. Although he had twice 
before sent similar orders, not a word of intelligence was 
received from him. He delayed until the 7th, when he 
despatched another express. 

On the same day, information was received by General 
Jackson, that a fortress of friendly Indians at Talladega, 
thirty miles distant from Fort Strother, was in imminent 
danger of total destruction by the hostile party, who had 
assembled about them in great numbers. They had es- 
poused the cause of the Americans; and, of course, had 
excited the vindictive malice and savage ferocity of their 
brethren. The runners, despatched by the friendly Creeks, 
urged General Jackson to relieve them from their perilous 
situation. The same sentiment that induced General Jack- 
son to hazard his reputation in protecting his countrymen 
at Natchez, led him, without hesitation, to extend his aid 
to those natives, who had adhered to our interests with so 
much fidelity. He commenced his march at twelve o'clock- 
in the evening. He despatched another express to General 
White to repair that night to Fort Strother, and protect it 
in his absence. To his great surprise, he received a message 
from him, that he had, agreeably to his order, commenced 
a march to Fort Strother, but that he had received counter 
orders from General Cocke, to join Mm at Chatuga Creek ; 
and that he should obey him. It would be difficult to con- 
ceive a more embarrassing situation than that in which 
General Jackson was now placed; his rear unprotected and 
exposed to the ravages of the enemy — in his front the war- 
shout had sounded, and a reaction of the bloody tragedy 
of Fort Mimms was impending over the defenceless inha- 
bitants of Talladega. Not a moment was to be lost; his 
decision was instantly taken, and he urged on his troops to 
their defence with his wonted energy. They crossed the 
river that very night, each horseman carrying a foot soldier 
behind him — though the Coosa is here GOO yards wide. 



380 ANDREW JACKSON. 

The whole night was consumed in this operation ; yet the 
army continued to march with unabated ardour, and by the 
next evening arrived within six miles of the enemy. 

On the morning of the 8 th of November, Jackson ad- 
vanced to the attack. The Indians stood their ground 
manfully, and the contest was long and bloody. General 
Jackson restored the battle twice when the enemy were 
gaining ground, and at length obtained a complete victory. 
The savages fled, leaving about 300 of their number dead 
upon the field. The loss of the Tennesseeans was fifteen 
killed, and eighty-five wounded. After the battle. General 
Jackson was compelled to return to Fort Strother, to pro- 
tect the sick and wounded, and obtain supplies. 

General Jackson's plan of operation was very much frus- 
trated by the refusal of General White to form a junction 
wdth him, or to repair to the protection of Fort Strother, in 
his absence ; and compelled him to relinquish his intention 
of immediately extending the war into the Indian territo- 
ries, and bringing the contest with the Creeks to a speedy 
conclusion. It protracted hostilities with a people who 
prosecute their quarrels with the most unrelenting and 
bloody barbarity, and who, of all others, should be promptly 
taught to respect our rights. 

It has been previously stated, that the Creeks had de- 
termined to attack the frontiers of Georgia and Tennessee, 
simultaneously. Measures, equally efficient with those 
adopted by the executive and legislature of Tennessee, were 
adopted by the executive and legislature of Georgia. His 
Excellency, Peter Early, governor of that state, upon the 
8th of November, 1813, communicated to the Senate and 
House of Representatives, the information he had received 
of savage depredations and murders upon the frontiers. 
The legislature promptly authorized the governor to cause 
the frontiers to be put in a state of defence, and to send a 
competent force into the heart of the Creek country. The 



ANDEEW JACKSON. 381 

Georgia militia were commanded by Brigadier-General 
Floyd. He met the enemy at Autoussee, upon the banks 
of the Tallapoosa river, and gained a complete victory. 

While these events were transpiring, General Jackson 
was encountering great difficulties in consequence of famine 
and mutiny among his corps at Fort Strother. Here his 
troops were compelled to submit to all the horrors of 
starvation. Their whole stock of provisions consisted only 
of a few cattle taken from the enemy, or purchased from 
the Cherokees. In these circumstances, General Jackson 
made every exertion to alleviate the distresses of his soldiers. 
He covered his table with offals and acorns from the forest, 
and partook of no better fare than the most humble of his 
corps. Great discontent, however, was produced among his 
troops by the privations and hardships of their situation, 
which at length broke out in open mutiny. They were 
clamorous to break up the campaign, and return home ; to 
effect this they were even encouraged by many of the 
subordinate officers. General Jackson saw the vast im- 
portance of maintaining his post and army entire till 
supplies should arrive. He knew that the hopes of the 
borderers of Georgia and Tennessee rested upon him ; he 
knew that they had watched his operations with intense 
anxiety, and hailed his victories with the most heartfelt 
gratitude and delight : he knew that if the campaign were 
to end here, all his former successes would be rendered 
worse than useless. 

Impelled by these considerations. General Jackson re- 
sorted to every persuasive expedient to allay the discontent 
of his troops. He reminded them of the past — the un- 
shaken fortitude they had displayed in their hazardous 
expedition to Natchez — the daring courage they had mani- 
fested upon the plains of Tallushatches and Talladega — 
the exposure of their families and kindred to the horrors 
of savage butchery. But all his efforts were unavailing. 



382 ANDREW JACKSON. 

Every pacific expedient on the part of General Jackson 
having been exhausted, he was at length compelled to 
resort to force. When, therefore, the militia revolted 
openly, and were about to abandon the camp, he drew up 
the volunteers under arms, with orders to prevent their de- 
parture. This display of resolution overawed the militia, 
and they returned to their tents. The volunteers, how- 
ever, were themselves disaffected, and soon prepared to 
follow the example, which, a short time previous, they had 
been instrumental in preventing the militia from executing. 
But the general had anticipated their measures, and pre- 
pared to counteract them. As they were about to leave 
the camp, the militia opposed them, and expressed their 
determination of enforcing their stay, if necessary, at the 
point of the bayonet. This movement produced the same 
effect upon the volunteers, as theirs of a similar nature had 
before done upon the militia, and like them, they returned 
again to their tents. The cavalry, however, were in a con- 
dition which silenced every objection to their departure; 
their forage was entirely exhausted, and they had no 
prospect of obtaining more. General Jackson therefore 
permitted them to return home, on condition they would 
rejoin him if necessity required. 

Mutiny, however, continued to exist in the minds of his 
troops, notwithstanding all his endeavours to suppress it. 
He promised that if supplies did not arrive in two days, 
he would abandon his position, and march his army to the 
settlements. But nothing would satisfy the volunteers. 
And he was compelled to allow one regiment to depart, 
with a stipulation to return after they should have satisfied 
their most pressing wants. The militia displayed more 
firmness, and waited till the two stipulated days had 
elapsed, but the supplies did not arrive. They required 
of the general a redemption of his pledge, and he could 
not refuse. In the bitterness of his mortification, he ex- 



ANDREW JACKSON. 383 

claimed that if but two men would abide with him, he 
would never abandon the fort. Captain Gordon and one 
hundred more immediately proposed to remain and protect 
the position. Leaving this garrison behind, the army- 
prepared for its march homeward. Scarcely had tlie 
troops left Fort Strother, when they were met by a convoy 
of the long-expected commissaries' stores. This was rather 
an unwelcome sight to the troops, whose minds were fixed 
upon home. After some resistance, which was overcome 
by a most signal display of firmness and energy by General 
Jackson, they returned to Fort Strother. 

The discontent of the troops was but little abated after 
their return to Fort Strother. The arrival of a sufficient 
supply of stores obviated the necessity for food ; yet the 
minds of the soldiers having been once fixed upon the 
prospect of quitting the toils and privations of military 
life, could not easily be brought to relinquish the favourite 
idea of returning to their homes. The troops remonstrated 
against their detention, whilst the general resorted to every 
expedient to induce them to remain. He addressed a 
letter to the governor of Tennessee for instructions ; and in 
his reply the governor, in consequence of the disafiection 
of the troops, and the reluctance they manifested at remain- 
ing, was induced to recommend an abandonment of the 
expedition. General Jackson no longer attempted to 
detain his men, but dismissed the discontented. 

The governor of Tennessee was soon aware of the error 
into which he had been led, by recommending an abandon- 
ment of the expedition, and, affected by the expostulations 
of General Jackson, and the difficulties which surrounded 
him, he set himself vigorously to work in applying a 
remedy. He ordered a levy of twenty-five hundred men 
from the second division, to assemble at Fayette ville on the 
28th of Januar}?-, to serve for a period of three months. 
Brighter prospects now began to dawn upon General Jack- 



384 ANDREW JACKSON. 

son, and after encountering the most appalling difficulties 
with an energy and decision, which compelled even his 
enemies to acknowledge, "that he made the most extra- 
ordinary efforts, and that it is no more than charitable to 
believe that he was actuated by the love of his country, 
while acting in opposition to her laws" 

The forces under the command of General Claiborne, 
General Floyd, and General Jackson, acted in concert in 
the prosecution of the Creek war. The latter was con- 
stantly advised of the movements of the former, and 
always exerting himself to render them assistance. About 
the 1st of January, 1814, he received the cheering intelU- 
gence that General Claiborne had achieved an important 
victory upon the Alabama, more than one hundred miles 
from Fort Strother, his head quarters. 

The newly raised Tennessee volunteers arrived at Fort 
Strother, and joined the forces of General Jackson about 
the middle of January, 1814, and soon after their organiza- 
tion, took up the line of March for Talladega. The whole 
force led on by General Jackson, consisted of the volun- 
teers, two mounted regiments, an artillery company, three 
companies of foot, and a company of volunteer officers, 
nine hundred and thirty in all. Two or three hundred 
friendly Creeks and Cherokees joined them at Talladega. 
With this force he continued his march to Emuckfaw 
river, where a large body of the enemy had collected. 

On the 21st, he approached the neighbourhood of the 
enemy. At daybreak the next morning, the Creek war- 
riors drove in the sentinels, and vigorously charged the 
left flank. The assault was bravely given and bravely 
received, and the battle was maintained with great spirit 
on both sides for half an hour. 

At length the savages gave way on all sides. The ma- 
jority refusing to ask for quarter, were slain by the victors. 
Continuing his march, General Jackson encountered other 



ANDREW JACKSON. 385 

bodies of Indians, and defeated them all. The loss of the 
Tennesseeans in the several engagements was twenty killed 
and seventy-five wounded. The loss of the Indians was 
very severe — 190 of their warriors were found dead upon 
the field. 

This was an important victory, and contributed much 
towards weakening the power of the enemy, and of en- 
abling General Jackson to bring the Creek war to a speedy 
termination. He marched his army back to Fort Strother 
unmolested by the savages, whose spirits were much de- 
pressed by the sanguinary conflict. This victory was fol- 
lowed by another obtained by the Georgia forces, under 
General Floyd. 

It was now the 1st of February, 1814. General Jack- 
son's forces were at Fort Strother, where, although in no 
immediate danger of famine, there was by no means a sup- 
ply for any length of time. General Jackson, ever since 
he had commanded the army in the Creek country, had had 
his attention diverted from the great object of a general — 
the organization of his army — the introduction of correct 
discipline, and preparation for active service. Indeed, he 
had to perform the duty of commissary, quartermaster, 
and commander. Washington was often in his situation in 
the war of the revolution. He could find an excuse for his 
countrymen, in the then destitute state of the country ; but 
for the contractors for the southern army in 1814, there 
was no excuse. In a country abounding in beeves, swine, 
and breadstuffs, an army had often been driven to mutiny 
and desertion through the apprehension of want. There 
is, probably, not an officer in the American service, but 
who will condemn the mode of supplying an army by con- 
tractors. They make the best terms they can with the 
government for themselves; the hardest possible terms for 
the seller of provisions, and often furnish the war-worn 
veteran with rations deficient in quantity, and miserable in 
45 



386 ANDREW JACKSON. 

quality. They think of nothing but gaining a fortune, 
while the gallant soldiers, who are suffering by their frauds, 
and famishing by their avarice, are gaining victories for 
their country. 

General Jackson had suffered too much, with his brave 
soldiers, for longer endurance. He supplied his army by 
his own agents, leaving the contractors to pay the expense. 
When no longer any cause existed for complaints in his 
camp, he silenced them. He caused a mutineer to be tried 
by a court martial ; and when condemned to die, he ap- 
proved of the sentence, and he suffered death. He ordered 
every officer to be arrested within his command, who should 
be found exciting mutiny or disobedience. He knew that 
a crisis had arrived when a great blow must be struck, or 
the expedition abandoned. 

The Creeks had assembled in great force at the bend of 
the Tallapoosa, at a place called by the savages Tohopeka 
— by the Americans, the Horse-Shoe. At this place, the 
m.ost desperate resistance was expected ; and every measure, 
within the limited means of General Jackson, was resorted 
to, to meet it. 

The 39th regiment United States infantry, under the 
command of Colonel Williams, had been ordered to join 
the army under General Jackson. It did not exceed six 
hundred men. By the middle of March, his whole force 
amounted to between three and four thousand. He then 
commenced his march. Upon the 21st, he established a 
fort at the mouth of Cedar Creek, and named it Fort 
Williams. Leaving a sufficient force to protect it, he re- 
newed his march upon the 24th. Upon the 27th, a day 
which will be remembered in the traditional annals of the 
brave, the infatuated, the bloodthirsty Creeks, until they 
become extinct. General Jackson and his army reached 
Tohopeka. 

There one thousand warriors had fortified themselves, 



ANDREW JACKSON. 387 

and determined to conquer or perish. Jackson's forces ad- 
vanced to the attack with courage and steadiness, and the 
savages received them with a heavy fire. The struggle 
continued for five hours. More than 600 Indians were 
killed upon the field, and it is probable that very few 
escaped from the battle. About 250 women and children 
were made prisoners. The loss of the assailants was 
twenty-five killed and 160 wounded. After this decisive 
victory, General Jackson led his brave army to the Hickory 
Ground, where the survivors of the Creeks came to sue for 
peace. 

Although the power of the Creeks was broken, it was 
notwithstanding deemed necessary to estabhsh posts for the 
defence of the frontier settlements. With this view. Ge- 
neral Jackson established a fort upon the Coosa, near its 
confluence with the Tallapoosa, which was named Fort 
Jackson. This completed the line of forts through Ten- 
nessee, Georgia, and the Alabama territory. The Georgia 
forces were now joined with those under the command of 
General Jackson ; and on the 20th of April, Major-General 
Pinckney arrived at Fort Jackson, and assumed the com- 
mand of the whole forces in the Creek country. 

A most kindly interchange of courtesies here took place 
between tliese war-worn veterans in the service of their 
country. General Pinckney assumed the command of 
General Jackson's corps only to disband them, after express- 
ing his exalted sense of their bravery and patriotism. On 
the 21st, the next day after General Pinckney assumed the 
command, he ordered the Tennessee troops to be marched 
home, and discharged ; retaining, however, sufficient to 
garrison the established posts. General Jackson imme- 
diately took measures to comply with the order. 

After the lapse of a few days, General Jackson com- 
menced his march for Tennessee. On his arrival at Fay- 
etteville, his troops were discharged, and returned to their 



388 ANDREW JACKSON. 

homes. The Tennesseeans duly appreciated the sendees 
of General Jackson, in his successful prosecution of the 
Creek wa-r ; and wherever he went, he was welcomed by 
the most enthusiastic demonstrations of joy and gratitude. 
In June, 1814, he was appointed brigadier-general in the 
army of the United States. About this period he was ap- 
pointed a commissioner, to secure by negotiation what he 
had already acquired by arms. 

The object of General Jackson and the other commis- 
sioners, was not so much to obtain new territory, as to 
secure the acknowledged territory of the United States 
from the future depredations of Indian hostility. On the 
10th of August, 1814, a treaty was executed, which is before 
the public. It cut off the savages from all communication 
with the perpetual disturbers of our tranquillity, and se- 
cured to the government such privileges in their country, 
as placed the frontiers out of further danger from the 
Creeks. The speeches of the Indian chiefs, which were 
elicited upon the occasion, are worthy of preservation. 

Weatherford, a brave, skilful, but cruel chieftain, whom 
Jackson had determined to put to death for heading the 
massacre at Fort Mimms, made a manly and dignified 
speech, and secured a pardon from the general, who could 
appreciate the feelings of the unfortunate brave. 

But the peace which General Jackson concluded with 
the Creeks, was not a permanent one; those who were 
disaffected, and refused to acknowledge the national capi- 
tulation, resorted to the neighbourhood of Pensacola, and 
to the shores of the Escambia river, where they held 
themselves in readiness to act whenever a favourable 
opportunity should occur. The Spanish governor of Flo- 
rida fostered and encouraged them in their hostility : 
although his government was ostensibly neutral, her pre- 
dilections were, notwithstanding, strongly in favour of 
Great Britain, and she lost no opportunity of secretly 



ANDREW JACKSON. 389 

aiding the latter in her belligerent operations against the 
United States. 

While General Jackson was concluding a treaty of peace 
with those of the Creeks, who were disposed to capitulate, 
he despatched some of his confidential officers to Pensacola, 
to observe the course pursued by Gonzalez Manrequez, the 
Spanish governor ; and from the friendly Creeks, he was 
also daily receiving information which confirmed his suspi- 
cions of the reprehensible course which was being pursued 
by this minister of Spain. 

In September, 1814, General Jackson had received no 
instructions from the war department, relative to the 
course to be pursued with the Spanish authorities in Flo- 
rida. He sent a direct message to Governor Manrequez, 
requesting him to point out the course he was about to 
pursue. The correspondence that followed between him 
and General Jackson has long been before the public, and is 
too voluminous to be here inserted. 

No specific object was effected by this correspondence, 
other than a full development of the inimical views enter- 
tained by the Spanish governor towards the United States, 
and General Jackson laid his plans of operation accord- 
ingly. 

General Jackson was now commander-in-chief of the 
seventh military district, including the most important 
part of the southern section of the union. It was now 
altogether the most endangered part of it. The British 
admirals and British generals were concentrating their 
forces, with a determination to wipe off the disgrace which 
had with justice been attached to them — not so much from 
the defeats they had suffered, as from the vandalism they 
had displayed in the Chesapeake Bay, upon the Niagara 
frontier, and at the city of Washington. The utmost con- 
fidence was expressed by the British in America, of the 
success of this great and united effort of the armies and 



390 ANDREW JACKSON. 

navies of Britain ; and a British commissioner at Ghent, 
who at this time was negotiating a peace with American 
commissioners, tauntingly remarked, that before they had 
time to conchide a peace, New Orleans and the states upon 
the Mississippi would be in possession of Sir Edward 
Packenham ! 

The secretary of war, Mr. Monroe, incessantly exerted 
himself to second the measures of General Jackson. Hav- 
ing accpiired Louisiana and the exclusive command of the 
Mississippi by negotiation, he was now called upon to 
defend it as the head of the war dej)artment. As there 
was, within the seventh military district, but a very small 
number of regular troops, the secretary made a requisition 
upon the executives of the states of Louisiana, Mississippi, 
and Tennessee, to have their full quota of militia in readi- 
ness for immediate service, at the command of General 
Jackson. Volunteers were again invited by General Jack- 
son to resort to his standard, under which they had always 
conquered. The unbounded popularity of General Jackson 
induced the militia not only with promptness, but with 
animation, to repair to the rendezvous ; and the Tennessee 
volunteers, under their gallant General Coffee, were again 
in motion. 

General Jackson, before the middle of September, had 
established his head quarters at Mobile, waiting the arrival 
of the militia and volunteers, some of whom had to travel 
more than four hundred and fifty miles.* 

Upon the 15th, Fort Bowyer, at the mouth of Mobile 
Bay, was attacked by the British, but successfully defended 
by Major Lawrence. General Jackson now determined to 
take the responsibilit}- of marching into Florida and taking 
possession of Pensacola. This was a bold resolution, but 
one he considered justified by the intrigues of the Span- 
iards. 

* Groodwin. 



ANDREW JACKSON. 391 

About the middle of October, General Jackson was 
joined by General Coffee, at the head of two thousand 
Tennessee volunteers and Mississippi dragoons. They 
were soon organized, and, General Jackson commanding in 
person, took up the line of march for Pensacola. On the 
6th of November, he approached the place with his army. 
The Spanish governor was aware of his approach, and had 
fortified himself, in conjunction with the British forces, 
for resistance. The forts commanding the town were 
manned, batteries were laid in the principal streets, and 
the British vessels were moored in the bay, so as to com- 
mand the approaches to the town. General Jackson 
halted with his army before the town, and despatched 
Major Pierre with a flag, to communicate the purpose of 
his visit. The garrison fired upon him, as he approached, 
in violation of the usages of civilized warfare, and the 
rights appertaining to belligerent armies. General Jackson 
sent the flag as a matter of courtesy, but the ungracious 
reception it met with, left him no other alternative than a 
" proclamation of his diplomatic character from the mouths 
of his- cannon." He attacked them in their fortifications, 
stormed their works, captured all their munitions of war, 
and compelled the British forces at the place to leave in 
the night. 

The operations of General Jackson in Florida, were ex- 
ecuted with his usual energy and promptitude. He left 
Mobile on the 3d of November, arrived at Pensacola on the 
6th — reduced it on the 7th — accepted the surrender of the 
Barancas on the 8th — and on the 9th, he commenced his 
march for Mobile, to defend Fort Bowyer. 

But the attention of Jackson was now directed to New 
Orleans, the safety of which was seriously menaced. Not- 
withstanding the negotiations pending between Great 
Britain and the United States at Ghent, serious prepara- 
tions were making for the invasion of Louisiana; and it 



392 ANDREW JACKSON. 

became evident, that, as an important preliminary step, the 
enemy would concentrate his w^iole force for an attack upon 
New Orleans, from the possession of which he would derive 
incalculable advantages. General Jackson, for a consider- 
able length of time, had been the only general officer 
attached to the United States army in this district. Ge- 
neral Winchester, of the United States army, arrived at 
length, and General Jackson assigned the command of the 
eaetern section of his district, and immediately commenced 
his march for New Orleans. 

This section of the Union was, at this period, far from 
being in a good state of defence. Its population was thin, 
and a great part of it consisting of slaves, added nothing 
to its means of defence, but required, on the contrary, a 
constant force to prevent its becoming a domestic enemy of 
the most dangerous kind. Its remote situation, pressing 
dangers near the seat of government, and other causes, had 
caused it to be left in a state of utter destitution, and 
dependent for defence upon its own resources. A country 
accessible by numerous inlets from the sea, was left unde- 
fended by any fortifications, except two; the principal 
much dilapidated, ill-provided, and very inadequately gar- 
risoned, the other incapable of the slightest defence. A 
few gun-boats were the only maritime defeiice for those ap- 
proaches ; a flat-bottomed frigate, which would have proved 
effectual in the shallow waters that surrounded the coast, 
by some extaordinary policy, or culpable neglect, was left 
unfinished. 

To add to the difficulties of the Louisianians, there 
existed division among them, not disaffection, but that 
confusion which naturally arises in times of danger, when 
there is no head, or one in which there is no confidence. 
Committees of defence were named by the citizens, exhor- 
tations were made to resist the enemy, and show that the 
insulting confidence he had expressed in the want of 



ANDREW JACKSON. 393 

attachment of a large portion of the state to the Union was 
false. 

On the arrival of Jackson, he found the population pros- 
trate with fear and despondency. He comprehended at a 
glance the difficulties that would obstruct a successful de- 
fence of the country, and while thousands of hearts were 
despairing, he resolved, with his wonted decision and energy, 
to surmount every obstacle, and defend or perish with his 
countrymen. He anticipated assistance from Governors 
Blount of Tennessee, and Shelby of Kentucky, and an 
augmentation of his force by the gallant soldiers of Mis- 
sissippi; yet that he should receive the aid of these 
important auxiliaries, was uncertain. 

From the first moment of his arrival, the confidence of 
the inhabitants in him begat confidence in themselves. He 
visited the forts; he organized the scanty force which was 
placed under his command; he addressed to them the in- 
spiring language which promised future victory. 

Before his arrival at New Orleans, the governor of the 
state had confidentially advised him, that disaffection 
existed to an alarming degree, particularly amongst the 
French population in the state ; and that the legislature 
was not free from suspicion. With the impression which 
this notice was calculated to produce, on his arrival for the 
first time in the country, unacquainted with the language 
spoken by a majority of the people, he thought himself 
obliged to assume such powers as alone could defeat the 
schemes of disaffection, if it existed, and to provide the 
means of defence which the government had neglected 
totally to do. This could not be done while the civil power 
was suffered to perform its usual functions; and he took, 
after severe deliberation, the decisive step of proclaiming 
martial law. 

Having taken this important step. General Jackson in- 
cessantly engaged himself in erecting fortifications, and 
46 



394 ANDREW JACKSON. 

disciplining his soldiers for defence. Fort St. Philips was 
selected as an eligible position, and Major Overton was ap- 
pointed to the command of it. The naval force near New 
Orleans, consisted of small gun-vessels, under the command 
of Captain Patterson. On the 21st of December, General 
Coffee arrived with 1300 Tennesseans; and about the same 
time Colonel Hinds came with 180 of the Mississippi dra- 
goons, and was soon followed by General Carroll with the 
remainder of the reinforcements from Tennessee. These 
brave men had marched a distance of 800 miles under the 
endurance of privations and hardships, which they met 
with a spirit of fortitude. The Kentucky troops, raised by 
the order of Governor Shelby, and commanded by General 
Thomas, had not yet arrived. 

At length the storm which had been gathering, and of 
which General Jackson and his little band had calmly 
awaited the approach, burst over them. The little naval 
force at New Orleans, after a most gallant defence, fell into 
the hands of the enemy, and facilitated their operations; an 
outpost, which guarded one of the principal inlets, was sur- 
prised, and advancing through an uninhabited and uninha- 
bitable country, the enemy was within seven miles of the 
city, on the banks of the river, before he was discovered. 
This was at two o'clock in the afternoon of the 23d De- 
cember, one of the shortest days in the year. All the 
disposable force from different points was immediately col- 
lected. Before the sun had set, 1500 men, the greater part 
of whom were militia, some of whom were armed only with 
pikes, were on their march, with a perfect knowledge that 
they were about to attack, in the open field, three times 
their number, of the best disciplined, the best appointed 
troops in the world. They advanced as gaily, and cheer- 
fully, as if they were going to a convivial feast, and before 
it was well night, they were in the midst of the enemy's 
camp. The remains of the gallant little navy, a single 



li 



ANDREW JACKSON. 395 

schooner, \inder the brave Patterson, who himself took 
command of this small force, poured destruction into the 
ranks of the enemy. This was the signal of attack for the 
army on land. 

The enemy at first gave way before the furious onset of 
the Americans ; but they soon rallied, and an obstinate 
battle followed. Their loss was very heavy. As nothing 
decisive could be effected in a night attack. General Jack- 
son contented himself with striking a severe blow to in- 
timidate an over-confident enemy and retired to his lines. 

On the 24th, General Jackson took his final position. 
It extended in a direct line from the east bank of the Mis- 
sissippi, into the edge of the Cypress Swamp, a distance 
exceeding a mile. For the whole distance, the troops almost 
incessantly laboured, and with a vigour worthy of the 
cause that called forth their laborious exertions, in throwing 
up a strong breastwork, under the protection of which they 
were to be entrenched. From the bank of the river to the 
edge of the Cypress Swamp, a distance of very near a mile, 
the country was a perfect plain. The small force under 
General Jackson were in full view of the greatly superior 
force in the British camp. 

Er On the first of January, the British forces placed them- 
selves in a hostile attitude, pushed forward their heavy 
artillery, commencing at the same time an attack with 
bombs and rockets upon the whole American line, from the 
Cypress Swamp to the Mississippi. The charge was re- 
turned with much gallantry and spirit by the American 
troops ; the musketeers and riflemen, together with the 
artillery planted upon the intrenchments, opened upon them 
a flood of death, and the battle raged till the approach of 
darkness put an end to the conflict, and induced the British 
assailants to retire to their lines. 

Both armies having received large reinforcements, Sir 
Edward Pakenham fixed upon the 8th of January for the 



396 ANDREW JACKSON. 

grand attack. The signal for battle was given a^daybreak. 
A detachment of the enemy under Colonel Thornton, pro- 
ceeded to attack the works on the right bank of the river, 
while General Pakenham with his whole force, exceeding 
twelve thousand men, moved in two divisions under Gene- 
rals Gibbs and Kean, and a reserve under General Lambert. 
Both divisions were supplied with scaling-ladders and fas- 
cines, and General Gibbs had directions to make the princi- 
pal attack. The whole British force advanced with much 
deliberation in solid columns, over the even surface of the 
plain in front of the American entrenchments, bearing with 
them, in addition to their arms, their fascines and ladders, 
for storming the American works. The enemy approached 
within reach of the batteries, which opened upon them an 
incessant and destructive tide of death. They continued, 
however, to advance with the greatest firmness, closing up 
their lines as they were opened by the fire of the Ameri- 
cans, till they approached within reach of the musketry 
and ritles ; these, in addition to the artillery, produced the 
most terrible havoc in their ranks, and threw them into 
the greatest confusion. Twice were they driven back with 
immense slaughter, and twice they formed again and re- 
newed the assault. But the fire of the Americans was 
tremendous. Every discharge swept away the British col- 
umns like an inundation — they could not withstand it, but 
fled in consternation and dismay. Vigorous were the at- 
tempts of their officers, to rally them ; General Pakenham 
in the attempt was killed. General Gibbs and Kean suc- 
ceeded, and attempted again to push on their columns to 
the attack, but a still more dreadful fatality met them from 
the thunders uf the American batteries. A third unavail- 
ing attempt was made to rally their troops by theu' officers, 
but the same destruction met them. 

General Gibbs fell mortally, and General Kean despe- 
rately wounded, and were borne from the field of action. 




;].>7 



ANDREW JACKSON. 399 

The discomfiture of the enemy was now complete ; a few 
only, of the platoons, reached the ditch, there to meet more 
certain death. The remainder fled from the field with the 
greatest precipitancy, and no farther efforts were made to 
rally thein. The intervening plain between the American 
and British fortifications, was covered with the dead ; taking 
into view the length of time and the numbers engaged, the 
annals of bloody strife, it is believed, furnish no parallel to 
the dreadful carnage of this battle. Two thousand, at the 
lowest estimate, fell, besides a considerable number wounded. 
The loss of the Americans did not exceed seven killed and 
six wounded. General Lambert was the only superior 
officer left on the field ; being unable to check the flight of 
the British columns, he retreated to his encampment. 

In the mean time Colonel Thornton, with his British, 
had been successful on the other side of the river, and had 
captured a very important post. The enemy were not in 
a condition to take advantage of this success, and they 
were induced to abandon the captured post. Some days 
afterwards the invaders retired to their fleet and sailed 
away from the city where they had been so completely 
discomfited. 

On the 13th of February, the victorious general received 
the news of peace, and he then bade farewell to his gallant 
troops. 

Before the enemy had entirely left the coast, General 
Jackson became involved in difficulties with the civil 
authorities of New Orleans. He imprisoned an editor who 
had influenced mutiny and desertion in the camps, and 
when Judge Hall sought a release by issuing a writ of 
habeas corpus, the general resisted. When peace was 
announced, Jackson was arrested and brought before the 
judge to answer for contempt of court. His defence was 
refused a hearing, and a fine of a thousand dollars was 
imposed upon him. This he paid before the indignant 



400 ANDREW JACKSON. 

populace could raise the sum by subscription, which was 
immediately started. He afterwards had a triumphant 
reception in New Orleans, where the people took every 
means of showing their gratitude for his vast services. 

General Jackson now returned to Tennessee, and estar 
blished his head quarters at Nashville. He continued to 
receive flattering indications of the gratitude of his country- 
men by votes of thanks, medals, and offers of public 
dinners. The Congress of the United States, besides com- 
plimentary resolutions, ordered a gold medal to be presented 
to him, commemorative of the battle of New Orleans. 

The general remained in private life, though still holding 
his commission, until 1818, when the Seminole Indians of 
Florida began hostilities. The government ordered General 
Gaines to protect the frontier ; he erected forts and strcfve 
to bring the Indians to terms, but in vain. Early in 1818, 
a party of thirty-six troops were massacred at the mouth 
of the Flint river. 

As soon as General Jackson received intelligence of the 
massacre, he raised 2500 men, marched against the 
Micasuky villages, burned them, and then hurried to St. 
Mark's, a Spanish post on the Appalachee Bay, Florida. 
A Scotchman named Arbuthnot and a British lieutenant 
named Ambrister, were captured near that post, and 
brought before a court-martial upon the charge of exciting 
the Indians to hostility. They were both convicted, and 
by order of General Jackson, one was hung and the other 
shot. These decisive measures struck terror into the 
enemy. About the middle of May, the general took 
possession of Pensacola and Fort Barancas, and captured 
and hung two Indian chiefs. Early in June, he informed 
the secretary of war that the contest might be considered 
at an end. He then retired to Nashville, and shortly 
afterwards resigned his commission. His summary pro- 
ceedings had brought much censure upon him, but he con- 



ANDREW JACKSON. 401 

sidered that they were demanded by the circumstances of 
the time. 

In 1819, General Jackson visited Washington, where he 
had the gratification of finding that a majority of the 
members of Congress approved of his course. Eesohitions 
of censure were rejected. After a short tour, the general 
returned to Nashville. 

He was not, however, permitted long to enjoy the repose 
he so much needed. In May, 1822, the legislature of 
Tennessee nominated him a candidate for the presidency 
of the United States. He was elected in the autumn of 
the same year to the United States Senate. A new tariff 
was enacted the next session, which received his support. 

The second term of office exercised by Mr. Monroe as 
president of the United States, was approaching its ter- 
mination, and the question of his successor was at this 
period agitated with much bitterness of party spirit 
throughout the Union. The candidates were General 
Jackson and Henry Clay, of the west, Messrs. Crawford 
and Calhoun, of the south, and John Quincy Adams, of 
the north. 

While the friends of the several candidates were pressing 
the claims of their respective favourites. General La Fayette 
made his memorable visit to the United States. The tour 
which he made of the United States brought him at length 
to Nashville, Tennessee, where he visited General Jackson. 

Mr. Calhoun withdrew from the canvass of 1824, and 
the contest was maintained between the other candidates, 
the result of which was, no choice by the people. General 
Jackson received ninety-nine electoral votes ; John Quincy 
Adams eighty-four ; William H. Crawford forty-one ; and 
Henry Clay thirty-seven. Consequently the choice, by a 
constitutional provision, devolved on the House of Repre- 
sentatives. 

Mr. Adams was chosen. The friends of Jackson were 



402 ANDREW JACKSON. 

much irritated at this, because they believed that he had a 
majority, or at least a plurality, among the people. From 
that time forward, they bent all their energies to secure his 
triumph at the next election. In 1825, he was nominated 
for the presidency by the legislature of Tennessee, and he 
immediately resigned his seat in the Senate of the United 
States. He retired to the Hermitage. On the 8th of 
January, 1828, he was at New Orleans, participating in 
the celebration of his great victory amid applauding thou- 
sands. He returned home shortly afterwards. In the 
autumn of the same year, he was chosen to the presidency 
of the Union by a large majority. 

On the 4th of March, 1829, General Andrew Jackson 
was installed in his office, John C. Calhoun taking the seat 
of vice-president. The cabinet was composed of Martin 
Van Buren, as secretary of state ; Mr. Ingham, as secretary 
of the treasury; Mr. Eaton, as secretary of war; Mr. 
Branch, as secretary of the navy ; Mr. Berrien, as attorney- 
general. The inaugural speech of General Jackson was 
expressed with much moderation. After detailing the 
different duties which devolved on him, as the head of the 
executive, he explained the principles by which he was 
resolved to be guided in discharging them. 

The principal topic of discussion upon the assembling of 
Congress was the tarijff act, which had been, from the mo- 
ment of its passing, a subject of violent contention and 
popular irritation between the Northern and Southern 
States. 

In 1832 an act was passed which lowered the duties upon 
some articles ; but it was far from meeting the wishes of 
Georgia and the Carolinas. They regarded it as a miser- 
ably scanty relief, and as it was the only amount of con- 
cession to be obtained from the Northern States, they had 
nearly resolved to throw off the sovereignty of the con- 
federation. After the adjournment of Congress in July, 



ANDREW JACKSON. 403 

these sentiments were sounded through the Southern States. 
South CaroUna took the lead. A convention assembled at 
Columbia from all parts of the state, declared the tariff acts 
of 1828 and 1832 null and void, and not binding on the 
citizens of the state ; that if the United States should at- 
tempt to enforce them by naval or military force, the Union 
was to be dissolved, and a convention called to form a gov- 
ernment for South Carolina. A convention, denominated 
from their acts, "Nullifiers," went to still further lengths. 
In November, the legislature of South Carolina passed acts 
authorizing the governor to provide means of repelling force 
by force. 

While civil war and a dissolution of the Union seemed 
thus to be approaching. General Jackson, his four years 
having expired, had been re-elected president. On the as- 
sembling of Congress, the attitude of South Carolina and 
the financial legislation which had produced it necessarily 
formed the principal topics. His message was followed, on 
the 10th of December, by a proclamation, in which he both 
argued the question with the Nullifiers, and announced 
that he would not hesitate to bring them back to their duty 
by force. 

Happily, there was no occasion to resort to arms. The 
agitation continued, however, until the spring of 1833, 
when the question was settled by the passage of a compro- 
mise bill, proposed by Henry Clay, of Kentucky. By this 
measure, the duties were gradually reduced until 1842. 

The next cause of public excitement was the president's 
veto of a bill passed by Congress, to re-charter the United 
States Bank. Believing that institution unconstitutional, 
he refused his sanction to its continuance. The veto mes- 
sage was dated July 10, 1832. This was a bold act, per- 
formed in opposition to the great moneyed power of the 
country, and it took the majority by surprise. In 1833, he 
followed up his policy of divorcing bank and state, by the 
47 



404 ANDREW JACKSON. 

"removal of the deposits" from the United States Bank, 
placing them in the local banks. On whichever side 
the right and law might be, the conduct of the president 
led to disastrous results in the mercantile world. The 
deposits being withdrawn, the bank necessarily diminished 
its issues, and lessened its discounts ; all operations of buy- 
ing and selling were thus discouraged and impeded ; a 
stagnation of trade ensued ; property was depreciated ; and 
bankruptcies and failures were multiplied on all sides. 

During the year 1834, the United States continued to be 
agitated by the consequences of the acts of the president. 
The House of Representatives was inundated with petitions 
for the restoration of the public money to the vaults of the 
bank ; but the majority of the members were favourable to 
the measures of the president; whilst the Senate w^as 
arrayed in open hostility to his measures, and refused to 
confirm his appointment of directors for the bank on behalf 
of the government shares. 

In his message of December, 1834, the president called 
attention to the rejection, by the French Chamber of 
Deputies, of the bill for the indemnification of the United 
States for losses sustained in consequence of the Berlin and 
Milan decrees. He suggested to Congress retaliatory mea- 
sures, and his whole message breathed a warlike spirit. 
The Senate, however, differed from the president upon the 
subject, and after much deliberation, unanimously adopted 
the following resolution, on the 14th of July, 1835 : " That 
it is inexpedient at present to adopt any legislative measures 
in regard to the state of affairs between this country and 
France." 

The French minister was recalled, the American govern- 
ment being at the same time assured that the bill should 
nevertheless be presented to the Chambers. Mr. Livingston 
was instructed to return home in the event of the refusal 
of the French government to pay the money. A bill passed 



ANDREW JACKSON. 405 

the Chambers, authorizing the payment of the money, after 
satisfactory explanation had been given to France of the 
president's language. In December, the president met 
Congress, and declared that there was nothing to explain, 
and that in any event he would never allow a foreign power 
to found demands upon the interior and official communi- 
cations of one department of the American government 
with another. Great Britain then tendered her mediation, 
and both parties accepted the offer. During this year, the 
whole debt of the United States was paid off. The ma- 
jority which the friends of the president had secured in 
one branch of the legislature, rendered all the efforts of his 
opponents to recharter the bank abortive, and its concerns 
were consequently wound up. 

On the 19th of July, a party of Seminole Indians crossed 
their bounds, near the Hogs-Town settlement, for the pur- 
pose of hunting. They separated, and agreed to meet again 
on a certain day. On that day, five of them were met 
together, when a party of white men came by and com- 
menced flogging them with their cow-whips. Two other 
Indians came up and fired upon the whites, who returned 
the fire. Three whites were wounded, and one Indian 
killed and one wounded. On the 6th of August, Dalton, 
a mail carrier, was killed, and the Indians refused to deliver 
the murderers up to justice. In September, a party of 
Micasuky Indians, led by the celebrated Osceola, waylaid 
and shot Charley Omathla, a powerful friendly chief, who 
was journeying with his daughter. General Clinch, -who 
commanded a small force in this section of the country, 
obtained a body of 650 militia from the governor of Florida, 
and commenced operations against them, on the Ouithla- 
coochee river. 

On the 23d of December, two companies of the United 
States army, under command of Major Dade, marched from 
Tampa Bay for Camp King. From Hillsborough Bridge, 



406 ANDREW JACKSON. 

Major Dade sent a letter to Captain Belton, urging him to 
forward a six-pounder which had been left behind. Horses 
were procured, and the piece was received by the detach- 
ment that night. Soon after the six-pounder joined the 
column, a shot was heard in the direction of the advanced 
guard, which was soon followed by another, when a volley 
was suddenly poured in on the front and left flank. Half 
the men were killed or wounded at the first fire, and until 
several volleys had been received, not an enemy could be 
seen. The Indians fired lying or squatting in the grass, or 
from behind pine trees. The infantry threw themselves 
behind trees and opened a sharp discharge of musketry. 
Several pounds of cannister were fired from the cannon, and 
the Indians temporarily retreated. The detachment in- 
stantly proceeded to form a breastwork by felling trees, but 
had scarcely commenced when the enemy returned to the 
fight. The infantry immediately took shelter behind trees ; 
but the}^ were all gradually cut down by the overwhelming 
force opposed to them. When all resistance had ceased, 
the Indians leaped into the breastwork, and stripping off 
the accoutrements and arms from the dead, carried them 
away. Of eight officers and 102 privates, but four escaped 
alive from the scene of the action, one of whom was shot 
the day after the battle. 

The money due for depredations under the Berlin and 
Milan decrees, was received from the French government 
ill 1836, and made a large surplus in the treasury. Much 
debating occurred in Congress about the disposal of the sur- 
plus revenue, which was now kept in state banks, selected 
by the secretary of the treasury. The expiration of the 
charter of the United States Bank was followed by the 
creation of a large number of state banks, whose capital 
was chiefly nominal, the largest being the United States 
Bank of Pennsylvania, with a capital of thirty-five millions 
of dollars. The great increase of the circulating medium 



ANDREW JACKSON". 407 

which followed the creation of these banks, produced and 
nourished all manner of wild speculations, particularly in 
unappropriated public lands. 

In the middle of the year, Congress adjourned, and the 
excitement of the presidential election followed, General 
Jackson's second term having expired. The friends of the 
existing administration supported Martin Van Buren, of 
New York, who was the more easily elected from the 
circumstance that three different candidates were pposed 
to him. The next year opened upon the people of the 
United States under very inauspicious circumstances. A 
sense of approaching disasters pervaded all classes, and the 
spirit of unbounded speculation was succeeded by one of 
general despondency and distrust. Many efforts were made 
by the merchants and bankers to avert them, but with 
very partial success. 

During the winter session, a bill was brought before 
Congress, recognising the independence of Texas. The 
consideration of it was, however, postponed, and a salary 
was appropriated for a Texan charge d'affaires, whenever 
the president should think proper to appoint one. This he 
did before the close of his administration. 

The Indian war was continued in Florida during the year 
1836. The plantations and settlements in the neighbour- 
hood of St. Augustine were ravaged by the enemy, the in- 
habitants slain, and the negroes taken away; General Her- 
nandez, who was in command, being too weak to offer any 
resistance. General Gaines had collected a body of volun- 
teers from Louisiana, and near the end of February, moved 
down the Ouithlacoochee. A skirmish happened at General 
Clinch's crossing place, another on the 28th, and a third, 
in which numbers were engaged, on the 29th, when General 
Gaines was wounded in the under lip. These skirmishes 
continued till the 5th of March, when Osceola demanded a 



408 ANDREW JACKSON. 

parley, which was Droken up, without any satisfactory con- 
clusion. 

Before closing our account of General Jackson's adminis- 
tration, it is proper to notice the troubles with the Indians 
on our north-western frontier, called Black Hawk's War. 

Li the summer of the year 1832, difficulties with the 
savages broke out, owing partly to their dissatisfaction with 
the stipulations in the Prairie du Chien treaty of 1823, and 
partly to the injustice of the settlers towards their red 
neighbours. Eight of a party of twenty-four Chippewas, 
on a visit to Fort Snelling, were all killed or wounded by a 
party of Sioux, four of whom were afterwards captured by 
the commander of the garrison and given up to the Chip- 
pewas, who immediately shot them. Bed-Bird, the Sioux 
chief, chose three companions, and they set about seeking 
revenge. Four or five whites were killed by them, when 
General Atkinson captured Bed-Bird, and a party of hostile 
Winnebagoes, in the country of that tribe. Bed-Bird died 
in prison soon after, and his companions — one of whom was 
the celebrated Black Hawk — were released from confine- 
ment. Black Hawk immediately commenced exciting 
hostility among the already disaffected tribes, among whom 
the Sacs bore a prominent part. Towards July, General 
Gaines marched to the Sacs' village, and they humblj' sued 
for peace, which was granted. Meanwhile a party of them, 
under Black Hawk, murdered twenty-eight of the friendly 
Menominies, and recrossed the Mississippi to the lands 
which they had ceded to the United States. General 
Atkinson marched after him, and at Dixon's Ferry, on 
Rock river. May 15th, 1833, learned that a party of 275 
men, under Major Stillman, had been attacked at Sycamore 
creek, on the preceding day, while incautiously marching 
after the Indians, and lost a great many of their number, 
the Indians having suffered but little. 

The cholera broke out among the troops, in July, and 



•ANDREW JACKSON. 409 

whole companies were nearly broken up ; in one instance, 
nine only surviving, out of a corps of two hundred and 
eight. Twelve Indians were killed by General Dodge's 
men, at Galena, and sixteen others afterwards fell by his 
arms, about forty miles from Fort Winnebago. Meanwhile, 
General Atkinson, with an army greatly superior to that 
of Black Hawk, pursued him through trackless forests, 
always finding himself no nearer his enemy at the end of 
his journey, then he had been at its commencement. 
Finally, however. Black Hawk, seeing the necessity of his 
escape, and that it could not be effected with his whole 
force, sent his women and children down the Mississippi in 
boats, many of which fell into the hands of the whites. 
About four hundred of them were encamped on Bad Axe 
river, where they were discovered on the 1st of August, by 
the steamboat Warrior, which had been sent up the 
Mississippi with a small force on board, in hopes of finding 
them. In the action which ensued, twenty-three Indians 
were killed and many wounded, without any loss to the 
troops. After the fight, the Warrior returned to Prairie 
du Chien, and before she could return next morning, 
General Atkinson had engaged the Indians. The Warrior 
joined the contest, and the Indians retreated with con- 
siderable loss, thirty-six of their women and children being 
taken. Eight of the troops were killed and seventeen 
wounded in this engagement. Black Hawk was now 
pursued over the Wisconsin, and overtaken in an advanta- 
geous position at the foot of a precipice over which the 
army had to pass. The Indians fought with the fury of 
tigers, leaving one covert for another, and were only routed 
at the point of the bayonet. Notwithstanding the small 
ness of his force, which scarcely numbered three hundred 
men, Black Hawk maintained the battle for three hours, 
when he barely escaped, with the loss of all his papers, and 
one hundred and fifty of his bravest warriors, among whom 



410 ANDREW JACKSON. 

was Neopop, his second in command. A party of Sioux 
now volunteered to pursue the remainder of the enemy, of 
whom they succeeded in kilhng about one hundred and 
twenty. The great chief himself was finally captured by 
a party of Winnebagoes and given up to General Street, at 
Prairie du Chien. Treaties were then made with the rest 
of the Sacs, the Foxes, and the Winnebagoes, by which 
the United States acquired some very valuable lands on 
favourable terms. Black Hawk, his two sons, and six of 
the principal chiefs were retained as hostages. The chief 
and his son were carried to Washington to visit the presi- 
dent, receiving many valuable presents on their route. 
They returned to their homes by way of Detroit, and were 
liberated at Fort Armstrong, Rock Island, in Illinois, in 
August, 1S33. He having been by the treaty deposed, 
Keokuk was made chief of the tribe, and Black Hawk 
settled on the Mississippi. 

On the 4th of March, the term of General Jackson's 
presidency expired. After issuing a valedictory address, 
he retired to his residence in Tennessee. 

Retiring to the Hermitage, General Jackson j^'^-ssed 
the remainder of his days in the quiet enjoyments of the 
social circle. He was a member of the Presbyterian 
church, and religious faith seems to have blessed the latter 
part of his life. He died at the age of seventy-eight years, 
on the 8th of June, 1845. He left no relatives, and his 
estate was bequeathed to the members of Mrs. Jackson's 
family. 

General Jackson possessed a remarkable personal appear- 
ance. He was tall and thin, but strongly built. His 
countenance expressed keen penetration and stern decision, 
the features being very strongly marked. The brow was 
high, the eyes were gray and piercing, the nose was long, 
and the chin very heavy. Towards the end of his life he 
had a slight stoop in the back. The chief feature of his 



ANDREW JACKSON. 



411 



character was a will that nothmg could bend from its pur- 
pose. His passions were powerful, so that his friendship 
was to be courted and his hatred dreaded. His mind 
was powerful, and naturally of a military cast. He 
was evidently born to command. His jDatriotism was 
unquestionable. As a statesman, he must be admitted to 
have been bold and decided, and it is good evidence of 
the wisdom of his measures to find that the government has 
ever since sustained their principles. He left his name as 
strongly marked in our history as any other man, except 
Washington. 




48 



MAETIN VAN BUREN. 



The successor of Jacksou was a man of a very different 
mould. Martin Van Buren was bred in another school, 
and he grew up to public fame under other auspices. He 
was the first of the presidents born after the struggle for 
independence. He belonged to a new era, and no glorious 
traditions of the revolution were connected with his name. 
The high positions he attained were the results of success 
as a lawyer, politician, and statesman. 

Martin Van Buren was the eldest son of Abraham Van 
Buren, an old resident of Kinderhook, Columbia county, 
New York, and was born at that place, December 5, 1782.^ 
Obtaining the rudiments of English, he early became a 
student in an academy of his native town, where he made 
rapid progress. He could not obtain a collegiate educa- 
tion ; but at the age of fourteen, he commenced the study 
of the law in the office of Francis Sylvester, Esq. At that 
time, students with his poor advantages, were compelled to 
remain under tuitipn for seven years. But they were per- 
mitted to manage cases before justices of the peace; and in 
this business Martin displayed keen and ready talent. 

The last year of young Van Buren's preparatory study 
was passed in the office of William P. Van Ness, a leader 
of the Democratic party in the city of New York. There 
he had every opportunity for acquiring a knowledge of 
political machinery, and he did not fail to improve his 

(412) 



Et;^ -? ^- v>- 




MARTIN VAN BUREN. 415 

chances. In November, 1803, Mr. Van Buren having 
reached the age of twenty-one years, was admitted to prac- 
tise at the bar of the Supreme Court of the state. Soon 
afterwards, he returned to his native town, and entered into 
a legal partnership with his half-brother, James J. Van 
Allen. 

At that time, the Federal party was in the ascendant in 
Columbia county, and a regard for interest would have in- 
duced most young lawyers to take the side of the dominant. 
But Mr. Van Buren avowed himself a Jeffersonian Demo- 
crat, and actively espoused the cause of the minority. In 
1807, he was admitted as a counsellor in the Supreme Court, 
where he frequently encountered the ablest lawyers. The 
next year he received the appointment of surrogate of 
Columbia county. He then removed to Hudson city, where 
he resided seven years, and attained a high reputation for 
legal ability. His career as a lawyer closed in 1828. Upon 
the whole, it was honourable to his energy and ability. 
Mr. Van Buren married Miss Hannah Kees in 1806, and 
in 1818 she died of consumption, leaving him four sons. 

The political career of the future president began when 
he was only eighteen years old. At that age, he was de- 
puted by the Republicans of his native town, to represent 
them in a convention called to nominate a candidate for 
the legislature. He wrote an address to the voters of the 
district, and obtained much reputation among them in con- 
sequence. In 1812, when thirty years old, he was elected 
a senator over Edward L. Livingston, a powerful candidate 
of the Federal party. In the legislature he supported the 
measures of President Madison, and strenuously advocated 
the justice and expediency of the war against Great Britain. 
In 1815, he was appointed attorney-general of the state of 
New York, and a regent of the University. He was now 
considered as a leader of the Democratic party in the state, 
his only rivals being De Witt Clinton and Daniel D. Tonqj- 



416 MARTIN YAN BUREN. 

kins. In 181G, he was re-elected to the State Senate for 
the term of four years. Two years afterwards he organized 
a formidable opposition to the administration of Governor 
Clinton, the leaders of which were long designated as the 
" Albany Regency." The two divisions of the Democratic 
party contended with great violence. In 1819, Mr. Van 
Buren was removed from the office of attorney-general. 
But when Clinton was re-elected, the office was again ten- 
dered him. He then declined it. 

Early in 1821, Mr. Van Buren was elected to a seat in 
the United States Senate, and in August of the same year, 
he took a seat in the convention called to revise the con- 
stitution of the state of New York. In the latter body, 
he advocated the broadest Democratic measures. In De- 
cember, 1821, he appeared in the United States Senate, and 
at once became known as an active and very influential 
member. He supported Mr. Crawford as a candidate for 
the succession to Mr. Monroe ; and when John Quincy 
Adams was chosen, he threw all his influence against the 
administration, and in favour of the Jackson party. He 
was re-elected to the Senate in 1827, and upon the death 
of De Witt Clinton in 1828, he was chosen to succeed him 
in the gubernatorial chair of New York. Upon entering 
on the duties of his office, Mr. Van Buren devoted his 
attention to financial matters, and created the famous 
safety-fund system, which however, did not realize public 
expectation. 

Upon the inauguration of President Jackson, he appointed 
Mr. Van Buren secretary of state. On the 12th of March, 
1829, the latter resigned the office of governor, and soon after- 
wards began to perform the duties of the state department. 
Such a rapid succession of honourable offices had never been 
bestowed upon any American. As secretary of state he did 
not give general satisfaction. His instructions to Mr. M'Lane, 
minister to England, regarding the opening of the West 



MARTIN YAN BUREN. 417 

Indian ports to American vessels, were loudly censured ; 
but he was sustained by the administration party. Mr. 
Van Buren's name now began to be mentioned in connex- 
ion with the presidency, and motives of delicacy induced 
him to resign the office of secretary of state (7th of April, 
1831). Soon afterwards, he was appointed minister to 
England, whither he went; but on the next meeting of 
Congress, the Senate refused to sanction the president's 
selection. The administration party now regarded Mr. 
Van Buren as a kind of martyr ; and when President Jack- 
son was nominated for re-election, the rejected minister was 
selected as a candidate for the vice-presidency. The ticket 
was completely triumphant. On the 4th of March, 1833, 
Mr. Van Buren was inaugurated vice-president. He pre- 
sided over the Senate with* energy and ability for four 
years, when he was called to a still higher office, being 
nominated and elected by the Democratic party to succeed 
President Jackson. Colonel Richard M. Johnson was 
chosen to the vice-presidency at the same time. 

Mr. Van Buren was inaugurated in the highest office in 
the gift of the Union, on the 4 th of March, 1837. In his 
inaugural address, he expressed his cordial approval of the 
measures of his predecessor, and his determination to 
maintain the same policy. 

The following gentlemen were continued in the cabinet 
offices to which they had been appointed by President 
Jackson: — John Forsyth, of Georgia, secretary of state; 
Levi Woodbury, of New Hampshire, secretary of the trea- 
sury ; Mahlon Dickerson, of New Jersey, secretary of the 
navy; Amos Kendall, of Kentucky, postmaster-general; 
and Benjamin F. Butler, of New York, attorney-general. 
President Van Buren appointed Joel R. Poinsett, of South 
Carolina, secretary of war. 

The new president was scarcely seated in his chair, when 
the storm, so long collecting itself, burst upon the com- 



418 MARTIN VAN BUREN. 

mercial classes. It was at New Orleans that the first 
failures of any consequence were declared ; but New York 
followed ; the banks found the demands upon their funds 
increase with frightful rapidity, while, what was yet more 
ominous, their circulation returned upon them. The alarm 
broke out into a panic ; then came a general " run" upon 
the banks ; and a few days more sufficed to bring about the 
almost universal suspension of cash payments. It has 
been computed that in New York no less than two hundred 
and fifty houses stopped payment in the course of the first 
three weeks in April. The banks of that city, Philadel- 
phia, Boston, Baltimore, Albany, and others, ceased to pay 
in specie. The mammoth Bank of the United States itself 
bent to the tempest, and imitated the example of the rest. 
The secretary of the treasury)", as soon as the suspension of 
cash payments became general, gave orders to the revenue 
collectors to receive nothing but specie, or paper converti- 
ble into specie on demand, in payment of the revenue 
bonds, given by traders in the course of business. Mean- 
while, the distress spread, like a pestilence, through the 
various ramifications of society. Public works, railways, 
and canals, were brought to a stand ; the shipwright and 
builder dismissed their men ; the manufacturer closed his 
doors ; one sentiment pervaded all classes, the anticipation 
of universal ruin and individual beggary. The administra- 
tion made several endeavours to restore the financial afiairs 
of the country to their former condition, and an extra 
session of Congress was convened on the 4th of September ; 
the president, in his message, confining himself to the 
financial condition of the country. The friends of the 
administration triumphed in the election for speaker of the 
House of Representatives, Mr. Polk being re-elected. A 
bill was passed suspending the payment of the fourth 
instalment of surplus revenue to the states, until the 1st 
of January, 1839. Another bill was passed, authorizing 



MARTIN VAN BUREN. 419 

the issue of treasury notes, equal to any deficiency that 
might ensue, with four milHons of dollars by way of reserve, 
at any rate of interest, not exceeding six per cent., to be 
fixed by the secretary of the treasury, A bill for the 
extension of the payment of revenue bonds, for a short 
period, and another, authorizing the w^arehousing in bond 
of imported goods, for a term not exceeding three years, 
were also passed during the session. 

But a bill, organizing a sub-treasury system, whereby 
the nation should become its own banker, which the friends 
of the administration made great efforts to carry, was lost 
in the House of Representatives ; after a very warm debate, 
that house resolved to postpone the further consideration 
of the measure until the next session. The war with the 
Seminole Indians continued during the year to employ the 
arms of the United States in Florida. The troops succeeded 
in taking the great chief Osceola, or Powell, whose capture, 
it was thought, would be followed by the submission of his 
tribe. Treaties were concluded with Siam and Muscat, 
which promised considerable commercial benefit. 

During the early part of the next session of Congress, 
the Canadian rebelhon and the border conflicts to which 
it gave rise, occupied the attention of that body, whose 
proceedings were marked by a becoming forbearance, even 
at a moment when out of doors the excitement of the more 
inflammable portion of the community w^as at its height. 
The president forbade by proclamation the interference of 
American citizens in the war, and ordered the United 
States marshal to execute warrants upon all those who 
should violate the national neutrality. General Scott was 
ordered to the frontier with a portion of the New York 
troops. But, whilst these efforts were making, an affair 
occurred on the frontier, which produced much ill feeling 
for a time, throughout the United States. A party of the 
Patriots had made a rendezvous on Navy Island, in the 



420 MARTIN VAN BUREN. 

Niagara river, opposite to which, on the American side, 
was a small village, denominated Fort Schlosser. On the 
night of the 28th of December, a small steamboat, called 
the Caroline, was moored there, intelligence of which was 
conveyed to Colonel M'Nab, commander of the Canadian 
militia on the opposite side. He had suspected her of 
carrying ammunition and supplies to the Patriots, and he 
resolved to destroy her. He accordingly despatched a 
party of militia in boats for this purpose. After a short 
scuffle, they became masters of the vessel, and then setting 
her on fire, they suffered her to drift in flames down the 
Falls of Niagara. Several persons were killed in the 
affray. This circumstance occasioned a correspondence 
between the secretary of state and Mr. Fox, the British 
minister at Washington, of a rather angry nature; and 
after a long debate, a bill for the preservation of neutrality 
was passed by Congress, and the matter dropped. 

A bill giving a right of pre-emption to the first settlers 
on unoccupied public lands, was passed during the session, 
in conformity with the recommendation of the president. 
The sub-treasury bill, one of the cardinal points of policy 
of the Van Buren party, was again debated at full length, 
and passed the Senate ; but its reception in the House of 
Representatives was less favourable ; and in June, it was 
ultimately rejected. During the year 1838, the banks 
throughout the United States generally resumed specie 
payments. The effects of the commercial catastrophe were 
rapidly subsiding ; credit revived, the prospects of trade in 
the autumn were encouraging, and the harvest was 
abundant. In the fall, the elections held throughout the 
Union continued the change in the numbers of the Van 
Buren party in Congress, which had been commenced in 
1837, and the administration found itself likely to lose 
even the small majority which remained. 

Tlie contest between the state of Maine and Great 



MARTIN VAN BUREN. 421 

Britain respecting the north-eastern boundary, began in the 
course of the year to assume a threatening aspect. The 
north-western boundaries were fixed by a treaty with 
Russia, and land added to the territory of the United States 
by the removal of the tribe of Cherokees west of the Mis- 
sissippi. The war with the Seminoles still continued. 
Texas withdrew her application for admission into the 
Union ; but her consul at New Orleans was recognised by 
the president, who issued a public notice, according to him 
the enjoyment of all such functions and privileges as are 
allowed to consuls of the most favoured nations. At the 
end of the year, when the second Canadian outbreak 
occurred, a new proclamation was issued by the president, 
calling on the citizens of the United States to preserve 
neutrality, and declaring the protection of the country 
forfeited by those who should invade the territory of Great 
Britain with hostile intentions. 

A convention for fixino; the boundaries of the United 
States and Texas was concluded at Washington, on the 
25th of April. Treaties had been concluded between the 
United States and the Peru-Bolivian confederation, and also 
with the king of Greece. 

In his message to Congress on the reassembling of that 
body, the president touched upon the removal of many of 
the Indians west of the Mississippi. He then stated that 
no official communications had passed between the govern- 
ment and the cabinet of Great Britain, since the last com- 
munication to Congress. The president was, however, 
assured that the offer to negotiate a convention for the ap- 
pointment of a joint commission of survey and exploration, 
would be met on the part of her majesty's government in 
a conciliatory spirit, and prove, if successful, to be an im- 
portant step towards the final adjustment of the contro- 
versy. 

Tiie discussion of the question of the abolition of slavery 
49 



422 MARTIN VAN BUREN. 

had been at length completely precluded by an act of Con- 
gress, which passed, at the beginning of the session, a series 
of resolutions to that effect, by the overwhelming majority 
of one hundred and ninety-eight to six. The excited feel- 
ings created by the recent collision of the citizens of the 
United States and the subjects of Victoria, on the borders 
of Lower Canada, had scarcely subsided, when the relations 
of the two countries were once more in the way of being 
gravely compromised by occurrences in the contested district 
between Maine and New Brunswick. It would appear that 
towards the end of January, 1838, a numerous band of 
British subjects invaded the portion of the territory in dis- 
pute between the United States and Great Britain, which is 
watered by the river Aroostook, and committed extensive 
depredations by cutting down the timber. An armed force 
was sent into the district to hinder the carrying off of the 
timber. This done, they were to return home; but for the 
seizure of Mr. M'Intyre, the American land agent, when he 
was in the act of putting himself into communication with 
the agent appointed by Sir J. Harvey, governor of New 
Brunswick, to watch the trespassers whom the officer of 
Maine had been commissioned to drive off. In retaliation, 
the English warden, Mr. M'Laughlin, was now arrested, 
and conveyed as a hostage to Bangor. These proceedings 
were followed by some angry correspondence between Go- 
vernor Fairfield and Sir John Harvey, and the people of 
both states began seriously to prepare for hostilities. 

Both the prisoners were, however, soon liberated on 
parole, and the discussion transferred to Washington. Se- 
veral letters passed between Mr. Fox, the British minister, 
and Mr. Forsyth, which, with a message from the president, 
were laid before Congress. Many speeches w^ere made iu 
that body ; several of the members advocating a forcible 
occupancy of the territory, whilst the others were more 
pacifically inclined. The debate in both houses closed by 



MARTIN VAN BUREN. 423 

referring the matter to the committee on foreign affiiirs, who 
recommended in their report that power should be given to 
the president to raise a provisional army during the Con- 
gressional recess; that appropriations should be made for 
fortifications, and the immediate repair and building of new 
vessels of war, and that the president should be instructed 
to repel any invasion of the territory of the Union in 
Maine. It was moreover recommended, that a special 
minister should be sent to England. The session of Con- 
gress shortly after came to an end. The war excitement 
in the north-east soon began to subside, and Messrs. Rudge 
and Featherstonhaugh were subsequently sent out by the 
British government, to conduct a new investigation of the 
still debateable territory. 

Great dismay was created in the commercial world to- 
wards the close of the year, by the suspension of specie 
payments on the part of the United States Bank, on the 
5th of October. Her example was followed by all the banks 
in New York, Philadelphia, Baltimore, Virginia, and the 
interior of Pennsylvania. 

The result of the election which occurred during the 
recess of Congress, was, that the government had a small 
majority in that body ; but the two parties were nearly 
equally balanced in the House of Representatives, until the 
middle of July, when five members of the New Jersey 
delegation, whose seats had been contested, were added to 
the administration party, who thus gained the ascendancy. 
On the 24th of December, 1839, the president's message 
was delivered, and received the first action of Congress. 
It stated that with foreign countries, the relations of the 
government continued amicable. He referred to the arrival 
of the commissioners of exploration and survey of the 
north-eastern boundary. He also stated that the troubles 
in Canada had ceased. Treaties of commerce had been 
made with the king of Sardinia and the king of the Ne- 



424 MARTIN VAN BUREN. 

therlands. The relations with Mexico and Texas were 
touched upon, together with finance, the post-office, and the 
best method of keeping the pubhc revenue. More than 
half of the message was occupied with a discussion on the 
evils of the American banking system, and a statement of 
the " constitutional" as well as other objections entertained 
by him to the establishment of a national bank, while, at 
the same time, he proposed that the public revenue should 
be kept in a separate and independent treasury, and col- 
lected in gold and silver. The Maine and New Brunswick 
boundary question continued tliis year still to keep up a 
feeling of irritation between England and America — and a 
long and recriminatory correspondence on the subject took 
place in the month of March, between Mr. Fox, the English 
w linister, and Mr. Forsyth. It was concluded by Mr. Fox, 
in a brief reply to Mr. Forsyth's last letter, stating that he 
would transmit the communication to her majesty's govern- 
ment in England, and that until he received instructions 
from home, he would not engage in farther correspondence 
on the subject. In June, he addressed another letter to 
Mr. Forsyth, in which he stated that the most prominent 
among the causes of failure in past negotiations, had been 
a want of correct information as to the topograpliical fea- 
tures and physical character of the country in dispute. In 
consequence of his statements, and the recommendation of 
the president, a bill was passed in Congress, appropriating 
twenty-five thousand dollars towards the expenses of the 
survey of the disputed territory. 

During the vacation of Congress, the election for presi- 
dent was held ; Martin Van Buren and William Henry 
Harrison being the two candidates. The choice of the 
nation fell upon General Harrison, who was elected by a 
large majority. 

The negotiations respecting the boundaries of the United 
JStates and the British provinces, and of the United States 



MARTIN VAN BUREN. 425 

and Texas, were stated by the president in his message to 
Congress in January, 1841, to be in a state of progression. 
The state of the pubhc finances, and the reduction of ex- 
penditures during his administration, were dwelt upon, and 
he closed with a long vindication of his own financial 
policy. 

On retiring from the presidency, Mr. Van Buren went to 
reside at Kinderhook, on his fine estate of " Lindenwald." 
He continued, however, to exert a powerful influence in his 
party. At the National Democratic Convention of 1844, he 
received a large vote, but did not obtain the nomination. 
He supported the candidates of the party, Messrs. Polk and 
Dallas, and greatly aided their triumph. In 1848, when 
General Cass was nominated for the presidency by the Na- 
tional Democratic Convention, a portion of the party with- 
drew, and nominated a " Free-Soil" ticket, with Mr. Van 
Buren, and Charles F. Adams, of Massachusetts, as candi- 
dates for the presidency and vice-presidency. These nomi- 
nations received a large vote in the Northern States, and 
defeated the regular candidates of the party. Since that 
period, the ex-president has not taken an active part in 
politics. 

In person, Mr. Van Buren is of the middle size; his 
form being erect and robust. His eyes and hair are light, 
and his countenance indicates extraordinary quickness of 
apprehension, his forehead being broad and high, showin"- 
a comprehensive intellect. He has frank and easy man- 
ners, and, from his great conversational powers and imper- 
turbable humour, is an ornament to the social circle. 




WILLIAM HENRY HARRISON. 



The ninth president of the United States was William 
Henry Harrison — who came recommended to his country- 
men by a long train of public services, chiefly in the field. 
The people of the United States had previously shown a 
cordial willingness to give the highest honours to the war- 
worn and patriotic generals of the republic, and the elevation 
of General Harrison may be considered as another instance 
in which the same grateful spirit was manifested. 

The subject of this memoir was the son of Benjamin 
Harrison, a prominent patriot of the revolution. He was 
born at Berkeley, Charles City county, Virginia, on the 9th 
of February, 1773. His distinguished father, dying in 
1791, left him under the guardianship of the famous finan- 
cier, Robert Morris, who superintended his education. 
William Henry graduated at Hampden Sidney College, and 
then turned his attention to the study of medicine. But 
he was destined for another profession. Before he had com- 
pleted his medical studies, the atrocities of the Indians on 
the frontier so worked upon his feelings, that he determined 
to join the army, and fight in defence of the homes of his 
countrymen. Mr. Morris was opposed to this resolution ; 
but President Washington expressed his cordial approval, 
and gave the enthusiastic young man, then but nineteen, 
the commission of ensign in a regiment of artillery. 

Harrison immediately joined the north-western army, 

(426) 



WILLIAM HENRY HARRISON". 429 

then commanded by General St. Clair, and engaged in ac- 
tive service. In 1792 he was promoted to a lieutenancy, 
and in the following year, he joined the army under Gene- 
ral Wayne. At the decisive battle of the " Fallen Tim- 
bers," Harrison was aid-de-camp to Wa3ne; and in the 
official despatch of the commanding general, he was com- 
plimented for his "conduct and bravery in exciting the 
troops to press for victory." The Indians were completely 
routed, and peace was concluded soon afterwards. Harrison 
was then promoted to the rank of Captain, and placed in 
command of Fort Washington. While at that post he 
married the daughter of John Cleves Symmes, the founder 
of the Miami settlements. 

In April, 1798, Harrison was elected secretary of the 
North-West Territory, and in the next year, when a territo- 
rial government was organized, he was chosen a delegate 
to Congress. In that body he was very active, and his 
energy succeeded in procuring some important advantages 
for the country he represented. His promotion was rapid. 
In 1800, when a government was organized for Indiana 
territory, he was appointed governor. 

In 1801, Governor Harrison entered upon the duties of 
his new office, at the old mihtary post of Vincennes. The 
powers with which he was vested by law have never, since 
the organization of our government, been conferred upon 
any other officer,* civil or mihtary ; and the arduous 
character of the duties he had to perform, can only be 
appreciated by those who are acquainted with the savage 
and cunning temper of the north-western Indians ; with the 
genius of the early pioneers, and the nature of a frontier 
settlement. The dangers of such actions as the battle of 
Tippecanoe, the defence of Fort Meigs, and the battle of 

*Among his duties was that of commissioner to treat with the Indians. In 
this capacity, he concluded fifteen treaties, and purchased their title to upwards 
of seventy millions of acres of land. 



430 WILLIAM HENRY HARRISON". 

the Thames, are appreciated and felt by all ; and the vic- 
tories which were consequent upon them, have crowned 
the victors with a never-fiiding wreath : but these acts, 
brilliant as they were, fade when put in comparison with 
the unremitting labour and exposure to which, for many 
years after the organization of the first grade of territorial 
government, the new executive was exposed. The whole 
territory consisted of three settlements, so w^idely separated 
that it was impossible for them to contribute to their mutual 
defence or encouragement. The first was Clarke's grant at 
the falls of Ohio ; the second, the old French establishment 
at Vincennes; and the third extended from Kaskaskia to 
Kahokai, on the Mississippi ; the whole comprising a popula- 
tion of about five thousand souls. The territory thus de- 
fenceless, presented a frontier, assailable almost at every 
point, on the south-east, north, and north-west boundaries. 
Numerous tribes of warlike Indians were thickly scattered 
throughout the northern portion of the territory, and fir 
beyond its limits, whose hostile feelings were constantly in- 
flamed by the intrigues of British agents and traders, if not 
by the immediate influence of the English government 
itself, and not unfrequently by the uncontrollable outrages 
of the American hunters themselves ; a circumstance which 
it always has been found impossible to prevent, in the early 
settlement of the west. Governor Harrison applied himself 
with characteristic energy and skill. It seems truly miracu- 
lous to us, when we retrospect into the early history of his 
government, that he should have been able to keep down 
Indian invasion in the infant state of the territory, seeing 
the great capacity the savages displayed for harassing him 
at a period when his resources and means had so much in- 
creased. The fact proclaims loudly the talents of the chief. 
Justice tempered by mildness; conciliation and firmness, 
accompanied by a never slumbering watchfulness ; were the 
means he used. These enabled him to surmount difficulties, 



WILLIAM HENRY HARRISON. 431 

under which an ordinary capacity must have been pros- 
trated. The voluminous correspondence of Governor Harri- 
son with Mr. Jefferson, from 1802 till 1809, is a recorded 
testimony of the ability and success of his administration. 
In September, 1809, a council was convened at Fort 
Wayne, at which Governor Harrison negotiated with the 
Miamies, Delawares, Pottawatomies, and Kickapoos, for 
purchasing a large tract of country on both sides of the 
Wabash, extending along that river more than sixty miles 
above Vincennes. Tecumseh, who was at this time absent 
on a visit to some distant tribes, expressed, on his return, 
great dissatisfaction, and threatened the lives of some of 
the chiefs who had concluded the treaty. On hearing this, 
the governor invited him to come to Vincennes, with the 
direction that he should not be allowed to bring with him 
more than thirty warriors ; this restriction, however, he 
evaded, on the pretext of suspecting some treachery on the 
part of the Americans, and he, instead, brought with him 
four hundred men, armed. This circumstance alone was 
suilicient to excite the suspicions of the governor, but when, 
added to this, the chief refused to hold the council at the 
appointed place, which was under the portico of the 
governor's house, and insisted on having it take place under 
some adjacent trees, his apprehensions were still greater. 
At this council, held on the 12th of August, 1810, Tecum- 
seh again complained of the alleged injustice of the sale of 
their lands; to which the governor replied, that as the 
Miamies had found it to their interest to make a disposal, 
the Shawnees, from a distant part of the country, could 
have no just ground for remonstrance, or right to control 
them in their disposing of the property. Tecumseh fiercely 
exclaimed, " It is false !" and giving a signal to his warriors, 
they sprang upon their feet, and seizing their war-clubs 
and tomahawks, they brandished them in the air, fero- 
ciously fixing their eyes upon the governor. The military 
50 



432 WILLIAM HENRY HARRISON. 

escort of Harrison on the occasion numbered only twelve, 
and they were not near his person, having been directed 
by him to retire for shelter from the heat, under some 
adjacent trees. In this critical moment of excitement, the 
guard immediately advanced, and would have instantly 
fired upon the infuriated Indians, had it not been for the 
coolness and self-possession of Harrison, who, restraining 
them, and placing his hand upon his sword, said, in a calm, 
but authoritative tone, to Tecumseh : " You are a bad man : 
I will have no further talk w^ith you. You must now take 
your departure from these settlements, and hasten imme- 
diately to your camp." On the following day, however, 
finding he had to deal with one so dauntless, Tecumseh 
solicited another interview, apologizing for his insolent 
affront. The precaution was now taken to defend the 
town, and place the governor in an attitude more likely to 
command their respect, by having two companies of militia 
in attendance. At this council the chiefs of five powerful 
tribes rose up, declaring their determination to stand by 
Tecumseh ; to which the governor replied, that " their 
decision should be reported to the president;" but adding, 
that he w^ould most certainly enforce the claims of the 
treaty. Still anxious, if possible, to conciliate, rather than 
coerce the haughty chief, he paid him a visit the next day 
at his camp, when, repeating in substance what has already 
been given, Tecumseh replied : " Well, as the great chief 
is to determine the matter, I hope the Great Spirit will put 
sense enough into his head to induce him to direct you to 
give up this land. It is true, he is so far off that he will 
not be injured b}- the war; he may sit still in his town and 
drink his wine, while you and I will have to fight it out." 
Shortly after this, the Shawnee chief withdrew to Tippe- 
canoe, the residence of the Prophet, where he is said to 
have formed a combination of several tribes.* 

* Statesman's Manual. 



WILLIAM HENRY HARRISON. 433 

During the year 1811, the intrigues of British agents 
operating on the passions of the Indians, brought afiairs to 
a crisis which rendered hostihties unavoidable. Tecumseh, 
and his prophet brother, had been labouring unceasingly, 
since 1805, to bring about this result. Harrison called upon 
Colonel Boyd, of the 4th United States regiment, then at 
Pittsburgh (who immediately joined him), and embodied a 
militia force as strong as the emergency would permit. To 
these were added a small but gallant band of chivalrous 
volunteers from Kentucky, consisting of about sixty-five 
individuals. With these he commenced his march towards 
the prophet's town at Tippecanoe. On the 6th of Novem- 
ber he arrived in sight of the Indian village, and in obedi- 
ence to his orders, made several fruitless attempts to 
negotiate with the savages. Finding it impossible to bring 
them to any discussion, he resolved to encamp for the night, 
under a promise from the chiefs to hold a conference next 
day. He sent forward Brigade Major Clarke and Major 
Waller Taylor, to select a proper position for the encamp- 
ment. These officers shortly after returned, and reported 
that they had found a situation well calculated for the pur- 
pose, and on examination, the commander approved of it. 
Subsequent examination has proved that the ground was 
admirably adapted to baffle the success of a sudden attack, 
the only kind which the great experience of Harrison as- 
sured him would be attempted. The men reposed upon 
the spot which each, individually, should occupy, in case 
of attack. The event justified the anticipations of the 
chief On the morning of the 7th, before daylight, the 
onset was made with the usual yells and impetuosity. But 
the army was ready ; Harrison had risen some time before, 
and had roused the officers near him. Our limits do not 
permit us to enter into a detail of the action ; the arrange- 
ment of the troops was masterly, and spoke the well edu- 
cated and exnerienced soldier. The Indians fought with their 



434 WILLIAM HENRY HARRISON. 

usual desperation, and maintained their ground for some 
time with extraordinary courage. Victory declared in 
favour of discipline, at the expense, however, of some of 
the most gallant spirits of the age. Among the slain were 
Colonels Daviess and Owen, of Kentucky, and Captain 
Spencer, of Indiana. Governor Harrison received a bullet 
through his stock, without touching his neck. The legis- 
lature of Kentucky, at its next session, while in mourning 
for her gallant dead, passed the following resolution, viz : 

^^ Resolved, That Governor William H. Harrison has be- 
haved like a hero, a patriot, and general ; and that for his 
cool, deliberate, skilful, and gallant condact, in the battle 
of Tippecanoe, he well deserves the thanks of the nation." 

From this period until after the declaration of war against 
England, Governor Harrison was constantly engaged in ne- 
gotiating with the Indians, or preparing to resist their 
attacks. Shortly before the surrender of Hull at Detroit, 
Harrison was selected to command the volunteer forces of 
Kentucky; and after the disgraceful capitulation by Hull, 
he was elevated to the responsible post of commander-in- 
chief of the north-western army in compliance with the 
general wish. Since the battle of Tippecanoe he had been 
the most popular commander in the west. 

General Harrison found himself placed at the head of 
the north-western forces, in the gloomiest period of the 
war, (September, 1812.) Volunteers flocked to his stan- 
dard ; but they required training, and to add to the diflicul- 
ties of the commander-in-chief, supplies were not easily 
obtained. Yet he immediately prepared for an active cam- 
paign against the British and Indians. But he found it 
impossible to concentrate his forces at the Rapids of the 
Maumee, in proper season, and his general plan of opera- 
tions was relinquished for the time. The massacre of Win- 
chester's troops, at the river Raisin, contributed to the 
embarrassments of the general. lie was then compelled 



"WILLIAM HENRY HARRISON. 435 

to construct a fortified camp at the Rapids, for the purpose 
of securing his very inadequate forces. This post was 
named Fort Meigs, after the patriotic governor of Ohio. 
There he was twice attacked by Proctor and Tecumseh ; but 
each time he repulsed the assaiLants, and inflicted upon 
them a severe loss, as narrated in the account of the war 
of 1812, during the administration of President Madison. 

Perry's victory upon Lake Erie decided the contest in 
the north-west. Having received all his reinforcements, 
Harrison embarked in the fleet on the 27th of September, 
1813, and soon afterwards landed in Canada. The British 
General Proctor fled from Maiden by the valley of Thames, 
and was followed with extraordinary rapidity by the Ame- 
rican general. On the 5th of October, Proctor was over- 
taken near the Moravian villages. 

The British and Indians occupied a strong position. One 
flank of the regulars was protected by the river, and the 
other by a morass. The Indians Avere posted between two 
morasses, the ground being unfavourable for the operations 
of cavalry. We quote the following account of the battle 
from Harrison's official despatch: 

" The troops at my disposal consisted of about 120 regulars 
of the 27th regiment, five brigades of Kentucky volunteer 
militia infantry, under his excellency. Governor Shelby, 
averaging less than 500 men, and Colonel Johnson's regi- 
ment of mounted infantry, making in the whole an aggre- 
gate something above 3000. No disposition of an army 
opposed to an Indian force, can be safe, unless it is secured 
on the flanks and in the rear. I had therefore no difficulty 
in arranging the infantry conformably to my general order 
of battle. General Trotter's brigade of 500 men, formed 
the front line, his right upon the road and his left upon the 
swamp. General King's brigade, as a second line, 150 
yards in the rear of Trotter's, and Childs's brigade, as a 
corps of reserve, in the rear of it. These three brigades 



'^ 



436 "WILLIAM HENRY HARRISON. 

formed the command of Mnjor-General Henry; the whole 
of General Desha's division, consisting of two brigades, 
were formed en jptence upon the left of Trotter. 

"While I was engaged in forming the infantry, I had di- 
rected Colonel Johnson's regiment, which was still in front, 
to be formed in two lines opposite to the enemy, and, upon 
the advance of the infantry, to take ground to the left, and 
forming upon that flank, to endeavour to turn the right of 
the Indians. A moment's reflection, however, convinced 
me, that from the thickness of the woods and swampiness 
of the ground, they would be unaljle to do anything on 
horseback, and there was no time to dismount them and 
place their horses in security; I therefore determined to 
refuse my left to the Indians, and to break the British lines 
at once by a charge of the mounted infantry; the measure 
was not sanctioned by anything that I had seen or heard 
of, but I was fully convinced that it would succeed. The 
American backwoodsmen ride better in the woods than any 
other people. A musket or rifle is no impediment to them, 
being accustomed to carry them on horseback from their 
earliest youth. I was persuaded, too, that the enemy would 
be quite unprepared for the shock, and that they could not 
resist it. Conformably to this idea, I directed the regiment 
to be drawn up in close column, with its right at the dis- 
tance of fifty yards from the road (that it might be, in 
some measure, protected by the trees from the artillery), 
its left upon the swamp, and to charge at full speed as soon 
as the enemy delivered their fire. The few regular troops 
of the 27th regiment, under the command of their Colonel 
(Paul), occupied, in column of sections of four, the small 
space between the road and the river, for the purpose of 
seizing the enemy's artillery, and some ten or twelve friendly 
Indians were directed to move under the bank. The 
crotchet formed by the front line and General Desha's divi- 
sion, was an important point. At that place, the venerable 



WILLIAM HENET HARRISON. 437 

governor of Kentucky was posted, who, at the age of sixty- 
six, preserves all the vigour of youth, the ardent zeal which 
distinguished him in the revolutionary war, and the un- 
daunted bravery which he manifested at King's Mountain. 
With my aids-de-camp, the acting assistant adjutant-general 
Captain Butler, my gallant friend Commodore Perry, who 
did me the honour to serve as my volunteer aid-de-camp, 
and Brigadier-General Cass, who, having no command, ten- 
dered me his assistance, I placed myself at the head of the 
front line of infantry, to direct the movements of the 
cavalry, and give them the necessary support. The army 
had moved on this order but a short distance, when the 
mounted men received the fire of the British line, and were 
ordered to charge; the horses in the front of the column 
recoiled from the fire; another was given by the enemy, 
and our column, at length getting in motion, broke through 
the enemy with irresistible force. In one minute, the con- 
test in front was over. The British officers, seeing no hopes 
of reducing their disordered ranks to order, and our mounted 
men wheeling upon them and pouring in a destructive fire, 
immediately surrendered. It is certain that three only of 
our troops were wounded in this charge. Upon the left, 
however, the contest was more severe with the Indians. 
Colonel Johnson, who commanded on that flank of his 
regiment, received a most galling fire from them, which was 
returned with great effect. The Indians, still further to 
the right, advanced and fell in with our front line of in- 
fantry, near its junction with Desha's division, and, for a 
moment, made an impression on it. His excellency, Go- 
vernor Shelby, however, brought up a regiment to its 
support, and the enemy, receiving a severe fire in front, and 
a part of Johnson's regiment having gained their rear, re- 
treated with precipitation. Their loss was very consider- 
able in the action, and many were killed in their retreat. 
" I left the army before an official return of the prisoners, 



438 WILLIAM HENRY HARRISON". 

or that of the killed and wounded, was made out. It was 
however, ascertained that the former amounts to 601 
regulars, including twenty-five officers. Our loss is seven 
killed, and twenty-two wounded — five of which have since 
died. Of the British troops, twelve were killed and twenty- 
two wounded. The Indians suffered most — thirty-three of 
them having been found upon the ground, besides those 
killed on the retreat. 

"On the day of the action, six pieces of brass artillery 
were taken, and two iron twenty-four pounders the day 
before. Several others were discovered in the river, and 
can be easily procured. Of the brass pieces, three are the 
trophies of our revolutionary war, that were taken at Sara- 
toga and York, and surrendered by General Hull. The 
number of small arms taken by us and destroyed by the 
enemy, must amount to upwards of 5000. General Proctor 
escaped by the fleetness of his horses, escorted by forty 
drati;oons and a number of mounted Indians." 

The victory of the Thames closed the war upon the 
north-western frontier. The president and Congress ex- 
pressed their congratulations to the army, and two gold 
medals were ordered to be struck, emblematical of the 
triumph, and presented to General Harrison and Governor 
Shelby. 

Soon after his greatest achievement in the field, General 
Harrison suddenly tendered his resignation. This was 
caused by the conduct of Secretary Armstrong, who gave 
instructions to superior officers without consulting the com- 
mander-in-chief The resignation was accepted in the 
absence of President Madison, who afterwards expressed 
his deep regret. 

Still, General Harrison was kept in the public service. 
In the summer of 1814, he was appointed in conjunction 
with Governor Shelby and General Cass, to treat with the 
Indians at Greenville. In 1816, he was elected to represent 



WILLIAM HENRY HARRISON. 439 

the district of Ohio, in the House of Representatives of the 
United States, to fill a vacancy, and for the two succeeding 
years. Soon after he had taken his seat, his conduct as 
commander of the north-western army was censured by 
some members of Congress. At his request, a committee 
of investigation was appointed — Colonel R. M. Johnson 
being chairman. The result was a full and triumphant 
vindication of the general. While in Congress, Harrison 
coincided with the views of the leading statesman, Henry 
Clay, but disagreed with him when that distinguished man 
censured the conduct of General Jackson in the Seminole 
M'ar. In 1819, General Harrison was elected a member of 
the Senate of Ohio. In 1824, as an elector of the state, he 
cast his vote for Henry Clay, as his choice for the presi- 
dency; and in the course of the same year, he was elected 
a member of the United States Senate. 

While a national Senator, General Harrison supported 
the administration of John Quincy Adams; and in 1828, 
the president appointed him minister to the South Ameri- 
can republic of Colombia. He did not remain long at 
Bogota, however; for one of the first acts of President 
Jackson was to recall him. Before leaving, Harrison 
addressed to General Bolivar an appeal in behalf of con- 
stitutional liberty, which has become a classic paper in both 
divisions of the American continent. In it, sound repub- 
lican principles are enforced and illustrated with brilliant 
eloquence. 

Returning to the United States, Harrison went to reside 
at his farm at North Bend, a few miles below Cincinnati. 
He accepted the small office of clerk of the court of 
Hamilton county as an additional means of support, being 
in rather straitened circumstances, and thus displayed a 
contempt of that false notion of dignity often held by those 
who have been in high office. In 1836, he was brought 
forward as a candidate for the presidency, in opposition to 
51 



440 WILLIAM HENRY HARRISON. 

the administration candidate, Mr. Van Buren. The 
nomination was entirely unsolicited. Hugh L. White, 
Daniel Webster, and Willie P. Mangum were the other 
candidates of the large party opposed to the Jackson policy. 
In spite of the divisions and the want of organization 
among the opposition, General Harrison received seventy- 
three electoral votes. 

In December, 1839, the Whig party, to secure concerted 
action, held a national convention. After a three days' 
contest between the friends of Harrison, Clay, and Scott, 
the first mentioned received the party nomination for the 
presidency. John Tyler, of Virginia, was unanimously 
nominated for the vice-presidency. The canvass was a 
very exciting one; but at the election in 1840, Harrison 
and Tyler obtained an overwhelming majority — receiving 
234 electoral votes, while but 60 were cast for Van 
Buren and Johnson. 

On the 4tli of March, 1841, General Harrison, then 
sixty-eight years of age, was inaugurated president of the 
United States. The inaugural address contained an able 
review of the powers granted to the general government — 
the modes in which they were liable to be abused. The 
principles advanced were decidedly democratic, and they 
were illustrated with an eloquence worthy of the author of 
the address to Bolivar. 

The cabinet was composed of the ablest members of the 
Whig party. Daniel Webster, of Massachusetts, was 
appointed secretary of state ; Thomas Ewing, of Ohio, 
secretary of the treasury; John Bell, of Tennessee, 
secretary of war; George E. Badger, of North Carolina, 
secretary of the navy; Francis Granger, of New York, 
postmaster-general ; John J. Crittenden, of Kentucky, 
attorney-general. This cabinet was expected to perform 
much to raise the country from the depression caused by 
the financial policy of the previous administration. 



WILLIAM HENRY HARRISON. 



441 



On the 17th of March, President Harrison issued a 
proclamation, calling an extra session of Congress, to begin 
on the last Monday in May. But he did not live to 
fulfil the hopes of the country. After a few days' illness 
of bilious pleurisy, the president expired on the 4 th of 
April — one month after his inauguration — at the age of 
sixty-eight years. With the last few words he was per- 
mitted to speak, he desired that his successor should under- 
stand and carry out the true principles of the government. 
He was the first president who had died in office, and the 
nation was deeply affected by his decease. Throughout 
the country funeral honours were awarded to the memory 
of the illustrious dead. 

In person. General Harrison was tall and thin, but 
robust and hardy. The expression of his countenance 
was singularly mild and winning for a warrior ; but his 
dark eye was full of fire and intelligence. His talents 
were of a high order. In speech he was eloquent and 
forcible ; while in action he was energetic and determined. 
As a general, he was remarkable for fertility of resource. 
His bold and novel manoeuvre at the battle of the Thames 
would alone secure him a permanent reputation. 




*i^i 



JOHN TYLER. 



The constitutional provision, that in case of the removal 
of the president by death, resignation, or otherwise, the 
vice-president shall succeed to the first office, had no 
enforcement until the death of President Harrison. The 
peaceable succession of one who was not chosen to fill the 
post of commander-in-chief was a wonder to the nations of 
the «^old world, whose ideas of democracy were always 
associated with war and bloodshed, while it only struck 
the citizens of the great republic as a matter of course. 
Still, many who had voted to place General Harrison in 
the presidential chair, doubted the beneficial results of such 
a succession. 

John Tyler, the successor of President Harrison, was 
born in Charles City County, Virginia, on the 29th of 
March, 1790. He was descended from a family distin- 
guished in the history of Virginia. His grandfather was 
marshal of the colony up to the time of his death, which 
occurred after the remonstrances against the stamp act; 
and his father was a distinguished patriot of the revolu- 
tion, and afterwards governor of Virginia. After receiving 
the usual elementary instruction, the subject of this memoir 
entered William and Mary College. He graduated at the 
age of seventeen, with almost unrivalled honours. He then 
commenced the study of the law under his father and 
Edmund Randolph, and at nineteen years of a!2;e he was 

(442) 




=^ ■(5_ -«» S?^ -H- 



-^"^1^# ^;^-/^r- ^ ^ 



JOHN TYLER. 445 

admitted to practise his profession. This was certainly a 
precocious display of ability. 

At twenty years of age, Mr. Tyler was offered a seat in 
the legislature ; but he declined the honour until the fol- 
lowing year (1811), when he was elected to the House of 
Delegates. Soon after taking his seat he came forward as 
an advocate of the war policy of Madison's administration, 
and delivered speeches which were certainly remarkable as 
coming from so young a man. He was elected to the 
legislature for five successive years. In the mean time, 
while the British forces were in the Chesapeake, he raised 
a volunteer company, and effected an organization of the 
militia in his neighbourhood. But he never had an oppor- 
tunity to serve his country in the field. 

In 1815, Mr. Tyler was elected a member of the Execu- 
tive Council of Virginia; and he served in that position 
until November, 1816, when he was chosen over the 
popular Andrew Stevenson to represent the Richmond 
district in Congress. This was to fill a vacancy. But in 
the spring of the next year he was re-elected by a large 
majority over the same distinguished opponent. 

In the House of Representatives Mr. Tyler advocated 
the Virginia doctrines of state-rights and strict construction, 
and opposed the national bank and a system of internal 
improvements. His speeches were numerous and effective. 
In 1819 he was re-elected without opposition. Before the 
end of the term, however, ill-health compelled him to 
resign his seat, and he retired to his estate in Charles City 
county. In 1823 he consented to become a candidate for 
the legislature, and was elected. As a state legislator he 
was active and influential. Many of the finest public 
works in Virginia were the result of his foresight and 
energy. The people of the state appreciated his services ; 
and in December, 1825, he was elected governor by a large 
majority. His administration was energetic and beneficial 



446 JOHN TYLER. 

to tlie state in every respect. He was re-elected at the 
expiration of his term of office. 

Not long after his re-election to the gubernatorial chair, 
John Randolph's term of office, as senator of the United 
States, expired. A large portion of the Democratic party 
were opposed to his re-election, as no reliance could be 
placed upon him. Governor Tyler consented to stand as 
the opposition candidate, and was chosen to the United 
States Senate by a majority of five votes. Upon taking 
his seat he joined the opposition to John Quincy Adams's 
administration. Upon the election of General Jackson he 
acted with the administration party; but not long after- 
wards he changed his side, believing that the president 
had wandered from the Democratic principles of Jefferson. 
He sympathized with Mr. Calhoun and his friends in oppo- 
sition to the tariff, voted against the Force Bill, and spoke 
of the removal of the deposits as an outrage upon the laws. 
Still he continued an opponent of the national bank. He 
was re-elected to the Senate for six years from the 4th of 
March, 1833. Soon afterwards he distinguished himself 
by defending a report upon the affairs of the United States 
Bank, against the furious assaults of Thomas H. Benton, 
of Missouri. In March, 1835, Mr. Tyler was elected 
president pro tempore of the Senate, by the votes of the 
AVhig and State-Rights senators. His senatorial career 
was cut short, however, by the legislature of Virginia 
passing resolutions instructing him to vote for the expung- 
ing of the Senate's resolution censuring General Jackson's 
conduct in the Seminole war. He believed in the " right 
of instruction," but as an obedience to the instructions in 
this case involved, in his opinion, a violation of the federal 
constitution, he thought proper to resign his seat. 

In 1830, Mr. Tyler had removed from Charles City 
county to Gloucester, where his family resided until 1835. 
He then returned to Williamsburg, and devoted himself to 



JOHN TYLER. 447 

his private affairs. But his name was kept before the peo- 
])le. For in the same year, he was nominated by the State- 
Rights party for the vice-presidency. At the election in 
1836, he received forty-seven electoral votes. In the 
spring of 1838, he was elected from James City county to 
the Virginia House of Delegates, where, during the subse- 
quent session of the Legislature, he acted with the Whig 
party. 

In 1839, Mr. Tyler was chosen a delegate from Virginia, 
to the Whig National Convention, which met at Harrisburg, 
to nominate candidates for the two great national offices. 
He there exerted himself to procure the nomination of Mr. 
Clay ; but General Harrison obtained a majority of votes. 
To conciliate the friends of Mr. Clay, Mr. Tyler was then 
nominated for the vice-presidency. The party was triumph- 
ant — Harrison and Tyler were elected by a large majority. 

On the 4th of March, 1841, Mr. Tyler was inaugurated 
vice-president of the United States, and one month after- 
wards, by the death of General Harrison, he became presi- 
dent. He immediately informed the members of the cabi- 
net that he wished them to retain their offices, took the 
presidential oath, and then issued an address to the people 
of the United States, setting forth the principles that should 
guide his administration. A day of fasting and prayer, 
on account of the recent bereavement, was recommended to 
the people of the United States. The appointments were 
satisfactory to the Whigs, and they had confidence in the 
new president. 

An extra session of Congress had been called by Presi- 
dent Harrison. When it assembled on the 31st of May, 
1841, the question arose whether Mr. Tyler should be 
addressed as president of the United States, or as vice- 
president acting as president. This was decided in favour 
of the first form. The message was considered satisfactory. 
The Whig majority in Congress immediately brought for- 
ward their great financial measures. A bill creating a 



448 JOHN TYLER. 

" fiscal bank of the United States," on a new plan, passed 
both houses finally on the 6th of August. The president 
retained the bill until the 16th of August, and then re- 
turned it with a veto message. This astonished the Whigs. 
But in the message the plan of another bank was suggested ; 
and a bill, creating such an institution, passed Congress. 
On the 9th of September, the president returned this bill 
with his objections. This veto was received bj the Demo- 
crats with much exultation. The Whigs throughout the 
Union were indignant, and the president was denounced as 
a recreant. On the 11th of September, all the members 
of the cabinet resigned except Mr. Webster, who remained 
to manage some difficult foreign relations. At the same 
time, the party issued an address to the people of the United 
States, announcing that they did not recognise President 
Tyler as a Whig, and justifying the course of the majority in 
Congress. Before the extra session was concluded, a protec- 
tive tariff, a bill for the appropriation of the proceeds of the 
sales of the public lands, and a uniform bankrupt law, were 
adopted by Congress, and sanctioned by the president. 
These were Whig measures, and yet the president was not 
considered a member of the party. 

The new cabinet was composed of distinguished Whigs 
and conservatives : — Walter Forward, of Pennsylvania, was 
named secretary of the treasury ; John M'Lean, of Ohio, 
secretary of war ; Abel P. Upshur, of Virginia, secretary of 
. the navy ; Charles A. Wickliife, of Kentucky, postmaster- 
general ; Hugh S. Legare, of South Carolina, attorney-gene- 
ral. John M'Lean declined to resign his seat in the Su- 
preme Court; and John C. Spencer, of New York, was 
then appointed to the war department. This was considered 
an efficient cabinet. In 1842, Mr. Webster, secretary of 
state, negotiated with Lord Ashburton, special minister 
from Great Britain, at Washington, a treaty settling the 
north-eastern boundary question, providing for the final 



JOHN TYLER. 449 

suppression of the African slave trade, and for the surren- 
der of certain fugitives from justice. 

In March, 1843, Mr. Forward retired from the treasury 
department, and Mr. Spencer, of the war department, was 
transferred to that post. Other changes were made in the 
cabinet. By an explosion on board of the steamer Prince- 
ton, on the Potomac, Mr. Upshur, who had succeeded Mr. 
Webster in the state department, and Mr. Gilmer, secretary 
of the navy, were killed. Finally, the cabinet was organ- 
ized as follows : — John C. Calhoun, of South Carolina, Sec- 
retary of state; George M. Bibb, of Kentucky, secretary 
of the treasury; John Y. Mason, of Virginia, secretary 
of the navy; William Wilkins, of Pennsylvania, secre- 
tary of war; Charles A. Wickliffe, of Kentucky, post- 
master-general, and John Nelson, of Maryland, attorney- 
general. 

In 1843 an important treaty was negotiated with China, 
by Caleb Gushing, commissioner to that empire. But the 
annexation of Texas was the last great measure of the 
Tyler administration. On the 12th of April, 1844, a treaty 
was negotiated at Washington, by Secretary Calhoun, on 
the part of the United States, and Messrs. Van Zandt and 
Henderson, on the part of Texas, providing for the annexa- 
tion of the "lone star republic." The Senate rejected this 
treaty. But at the presidential election, Messrs. Polk and 
Dallas, the democratic candidates, who were in favour of 
the scheme, obtained a triumph, and measures were imme- 
diately taken to bring about the annexation. Joint reso- 
lutions for that purpose passed Congress on the 1st of 
March, 1845, and President Tyler immediately gave them 
his sanction. On the 4tli of March Mr. Tyler retired from 
office, without carrying with him the sympathies of either 
of the great parties. 

In person Ex-President Tyler is tall and thin. His 
complexion is light, his eyes blue, his forehead high, and 
52 



450 



JOHN TYLER. 



his nose prominent. His manners are easy, and liis amia- 
bility and conversational powers render him an ornament 
to the social circle. He is a fluent and elegant orator, 
and a skilful writer. His rise was extraordinary, but not 
beyond his capabilities. As a statesman he was rather 
vacillating, but, on some occasions, very energetic. 

In 1813 Mr. Tyler married Miss Letitia Christian, of 
Virginia. This lady died in Washington, September, 1842, 
leaving three sons and three daughters. In June, 1844, 
Mr. Tyler married Miss Julia Gardiner, of New York, a 
young, beautiful, and wealthy lady. Mr. Tyler now resides 
near Williamsburg, Virginia. 




H?g -p- ^ -,>. 




JAMES KNOX POLK. 



The successor of President Tyler was a steady and 
unflinching supporter of the pohcy inaugurated by General 
Jackson and carried out by Martin Van Buren. His elec- 
tion must be considered extraordinary when we remember 
that four years previous the Whig nominees had triumjDhed 
by an overwhelming majority. Such fluctuations in parti- 
san success show how rapid are the changes of opinion in 
American politics, and how difiicult is a calculation of pro- 
babilities. 

James Knox Polk was born in Mecklenburg county, 
North Carolina, November 2, 1795. He was the eldest 
son of Samuel Polk and Jane Knox, parents of moderate 
means, but highly respectable connexions. In 1806 the 
Polk family emigrated to Tennessee, and settled in the 
rich valley of the Duck river, a tributary of the Tennessee, 
the tract of country being soon afterwards formed into the 
county of Maury. James passed his boyhood upon his 
father's farm ; but he evinced a strong inclination for 
learning. The opportunities for instruction in the new 
state were very limited. A good English education was 
the utmost that the majority could hope to obtain. Young 
Polk was compelled, by ill-health, to relinquish even the 
studies that were accessible; and his father placed hnn 
with a merchant, to fit him for an active business life. 
This was disagreeable to the ambitious youth. After 

(453) 



454 JAMES KNOX POLK. 

remaining a few weeks with the merchant, James succeeded 
in gaining permission to return home and resume his 
studies. In about two years and a half he prepared him- 
self for an advanced class in college, and in the fall of 1815 
he entered the University of North Carolina. He graduated 
in June, 1818, with the highest distinction. 

Mr. Polk selected the profession of the law, and com- 
menced his studies in Nashville, in the office of Felix 
Grundy, a lawyer and politician of wide reputation. Under 
the able guardianship of Mr. Grundy, and with the cordial 
friendship of General Jackson, the young student had the 
best opportunities for advancement, and he did not fail to 
improve them. Towards the close of 1820, Mr. Polk was 
admitted to the bar, and he then began to practise in 
Columbia, Maury county. As his connexions were very 
influential in that part of the country, his success was 
immediate and complete. 

Mr. Polk entered political life at an early age. He was 
an ardent supporter of the Jeffersonian party — or that 
which he believed to be such — and being a ready, fluent, 
and persuasive speaker, he soon became known as one of 
its advocates. His first public employment was as chief 
clerk of the House of Representatives of Tennessee. In 
the summer of 1823 he was elected to represent Maury 
county in the legislature. He remained in that body two 
years, taking an active part in legislation. During this 
period he married Sarah Childress, the daughter of a 
wealthy and enterprising merchant of Rutherford county, 
Tennessee. 

In the spring of 1825, Mr. Polk came forward as a 
candidate for Congress, and in August of the same year he 
was elected by a flattering vote. Soon after taking his 
seat in the national house, he became distinguished as a 
ready debater, and an active and influential member. He 
was a warm supporter of General Jackson for the pre- 



JAMES KNOX POLK. 455 

sidency, and defended all the bold measures of that distin- 
guished man after his election. The Jackson party in the 
House regarded Mr. Polk as their leader in all debates 
upon the bank, tariff, and internal improvement questions. 
In the House, and upon the stump in Tennessee, he was 
the firm and able advocate of the Jackson policy. He 
served as chairman of several important committees. 

In June, 1834, Andrew Stevenson, of Virginia, resigned 
the speakership of the House. Mr. Polk and Mr. Bell 
were the rival candidates for the succession. The latter 
was elected by a combination of the Whigs and the 
supporters of Judge White for the presidency. The 
next year a new Congress assembled, and it was found 
that the friends of the administration were in a large 
majority. Mr. Polk was again selected as their candidate 
for speaker, and on this occasion was elected by a majority 
of forty-eight votes. At the first, or extra session of the 
25th Congress, held in September, 1837, he was again 
chosen to the same post. He filled the speakership duiing 
five sessions. The period was stormy; and Mr. Polk's 
duties were very arduous. But he performed them to the 
general satisfaction. On the 4th of March, 1839, he 
terminated his connexion with the House of Representa- 
tives, delivering on that occasion a feeling address. He 
resigned his post, to accept the nomination of the Demo- 
cratic party for the gubernatorial chair of Tennessee. 

The canvass was spirited. Governor Cannon, the 
antagonist of Mr. Polk, was a popular man. Both took 
the stump. At the election, Mr. Polk triumphed, receiving 
2500 majority. On the 14th of October, 1839, he was 
inaugurated governor of Tennessee. His term of office 
expired in October, 1841. But at the August election, he 
was again a candidate. The Harrison party had carried 
the state by 12,000 majority the year previous. Defeat 
was certain. James C. Jones, the Whig candidate, was 



456 JAMES KNOX POLK. 

elected. In 1843, Mr. Polk was again a candidate, and 
was again defeated by Governor Jones. 

The friends of Mr. Polk seemed determined that he 
should not remain in private life. At the session of the 
Tennessee legislature in 1839, he was nominated for the 
vice-presidency, to be placed, on the ticket wdth Martin 
Van Buren. But Colonel R. M. Johnson, of Kentucky, 
was the favourite candidate, and at the election of 1840, 
Mr. Polk received but one electoral vote. 

From the time of the defeat of Mr. Van Buren, in 1840, 
up to within a few weeks previous to the assembling of the 
national democratic convention at Baltimore, in May, 1844, 
public opinion in the Republican party seemed to be firmly 
fixed upon him as their candidate for re-election to the 
station which he had once filled. But in the month of 
April, 1844, a treaty was concluded under the auspices of 
President Tyler, between the representatives of the govern- 
ment of the United States and of the republic of Texas, 
providing for the annexation* of the latter to the American 
Confederacy. This measure, though long in contemplation, 
was fruitful in strife and dissension. Hithero it had been 
conceded on every hand, that Mr. Van Buren and Mr. 
Clay ought to be, and would be, the rival candidates for 
the presidency in 1844 ; but now the political elements 
were thrown into complete confusion. The opinions of 
almost every public man in the United States were sought; 
and among others, Mr. Polk was addressed. He replied, 
arguing in fiivour of annexation. 

In the commotion produced by the agitation of the 
Texas question, the National Democratic Convention as- 
sembled at Baltimore, on the 27th day of May, 1844. Until 
the publication of his Texas letter, Mr. Van Buren had 

* The term reannexatioti was frequently used during the canvass, as synony- 
mous with annexation; because Texas originally formed part of the Louisiana 
purchase, and belonged to the United States. 



JAMES KNOX POLK. 457 

been by far the most prominent candidate ; but when the 
convention met, Lewis Cass, of Michigan, Richard M. John- 
son, of Kentucky, James Buchanan, of Pennsylvania, and 
Levi Woodbury, of New Hampshire, all of whom were in 
favour of the immediate annexation of Texas, were sup- 
ported for the presidential nomination by their respective 
friends, with greater or less earnestness. Immediately 
after the organization of the convention, a rule was adopted, 
in accordance with the precedents established by the con- 
ventions of 1832 and 1835, requiring a vote of two-thirds 
to secure a nomination. Mr. Van Buren received a 
majority of the votes on the first ballot ; seven additional 
ballotings were then had, but at no time did he receive a 
vote of two-thirds ; whereupon his name was withdrawn by 
the New York delegation. The delegates opposed to his 
nomination, after the first ballot, concentrated their 
strength mainly upon Mr. Cass; but- as the friends of Mr. 
Van Buren numbered more than one-third of the conven- 
tion, and were irreconcilably hostile to the selection of any 
of the other candidates originally proposed, it was apparent 
that no nomination could be made without their consent. 

The name of Mr. Polk had been freely spoken of in 
connexion with the vice-presidency, and when the conven- 
tion found itself in thi,« dilemma, a number of his friends 
among the delegates voted for him on the'eighth ballot as 
the presidential candidate. All conceded his talents. On 
the ninth ballot he received nearly all the votes of the 
members of the convention, and the vote was subsequently 
made unanimous. The nomination for the \dce-presidency 
was tendered with great unanimity to Silas Wright, of New 
York, a distinguished friend of Mr. Van Buren, but it wa;s 
declined ; and George M. Dallas, of Pennsylvania, was then 
put in nomination. 

The nomination of Mr. Polk was communicated to him 
by a committee appointed by the convention. Unex- 



458 JAMES KNOX POLK. 

pected as was tlie honour thus conferred upon him, he did 
not decUne it. In reply to the committee he returned a 
letter of acceptance, in which he avowed his firm deter- 
mination, in the event of his election, not to be again a 
candidate. 

Prior to its adjournment, the Baltimore Convention 
adopted a series of resolutions, setting forth the principles 
that distinguished them as a party. By the acceptance 
of their nomination, Mr, Polk signified his approbation of 
those resolutions. 

The candidates selected by the Whig party, in opposition 
to the Democratic nominees, were Henry Clay, of Ken- 
tucky, for president, and Theodore Frelinghuysen, of New 
Jersey, for vice-president. Mr. Tyler, the then president, 
was also put in nomination for the presidency, by a conven- 
tion of his friends, but he subsequently withdrew his name 
and gave his support to the Democratic ticket. The nomi- 
nation of Mr. Polk was not only well received ; a spirit of 
enthusiasm was soon aroused in his favour. The election 
was conducted with great spirit and animation. Mr. Van 
Buren and Mr. Cass, with the other candidates before the 
National Convention, and their friends, cordially supported 
the ticket. 

In the electoral colleges, Mr. Polk received 170 votes, and 
Mr. Clay 105.* The majority of Mr. Polk over his dis- 
tinguished competitor, on the popular vote, was about 
40,000, exclusive of the vote of South Carolina, whose 
electors are chosen by the state legislature. The total vote 
was a little less than 2,700,000. 

On the 28th of November — the result of the election 
being then known — Mr. Polk visited Nashville, and was 

*Mr. Polk received the electoral votes of Maine, New Hampshire, New York, 
Pennsylvania, Virginia, South Carolina, Georgia, Alabama, Mississippi, Louisi- 
ana, Michigan, Indiana, Illinois, Missouri, and Arkansas; and Mr. Clay those 
of Vermont, Massachusetts, Rhode Island, Connecticut, New Jersey, Delaware, 
Maryland, North Carolina, Tennessee, Kentucky, and Ohio. 



JAMES KNOX POLK. 459 

honoured with a public reception by his Democratic friends, 
together with a number of tlieir opponents in the late con- 
test, who cheerfully united with them in paying due honours 
to the president elect of the people's choice. A brilliant 
civic and military procession escorted him to the public 
square in front of the court-house, where he was addressed 
by the Hon. A. 0. P. Nicholson, on behalf of the large 
assembly that had collected to welcome him to the seat of 
government. To the address of Mr. Nicholson, congratu- 
lating him on his success, and assuring him of the high 
respect and admiration entertained for his intellectual ca- 
pacity and his private virtues by the people of Tennessee, 
Mr. Polk replied in a conciliatory and grateful spirit. 

Mr, Polk left his home in Tennessee, on his way to 
Washington, toward the latter part of January, 1845. He 
was accompanied on his journey by Mrs. Polk, and several 
personal friends. On the 31st instant, he had a long private 
interview at the Hermitage, with his venerable friend, 
Andrew Jackson. The leave-taking was affectionate and 
impressive, for each felt conscious, that, in all probability, 
it was a farewell for ever.* 

On the 1st of February, Mr. Polk and suite left Nash- 
ville, and proceeded as rapidly as possible, considering the 
demonstrations of respect with which he was everywhere 
received on his route, to the seat of government of the 
nation. The president elect with his party arrived at Wash- 
ington on the 13th of February, and was immediately 
waited upon by a committee of the two houses of Congress, 
who informed him that the returns from the electoral 
colleges had been opened, and the ballots counted, on the 
previous day; and that he had been declared duly elected 
president of the United States. He thereupon signified his 
acceptance of the office to which he had been chosen by the 
people, and desired the committee to convey to Congress his 

* Jenkins's Life of James K. Pulk. 

53 



460 JAMES KNOX POLK. 

assurances, that '' in executing the responsible duties which 
would devolve upon him, it would be his anxious desire to 
maintain the honour and promote the welfare of the 
country." 

On the 4th day of March, 1845, Mr. Polk was inaugu- 
rated president of the United States. An immense con- 
course of people assembled at Washington — every quarter 
of the Union being well represented — to witness the im- 
posing ceremony. 

About eleven o'clock in the forenoon, the procession 
moved from the quarters of the president elect, at Cole- 
man's hotel — Mr. Polk and his predecessor, Mr. Tyler, 
riding together in an open carriage. Arrived at the capi- 
tol, the president elect and the ex-president entered the 
Senate chamber. Here a procession was formed, when they 
proceeded to the platform on the east front of the capitol, 
from which Mr. Polk delivered his inaugural address, setting 
forth the principles upon which he intended to conduct the 
administration; and it was generally considered an able 
paper. 

In organizing the cabinet, James Buchanan, of Pennsyl- 
vania, was appointed secretary of state ; Robert J. Walker, 
of Mississippi, secretary of the treasury; William L. Marcy, 
of New York, secretary of war ; George Bancroft, of Massa- 
chusetts, secretary of the navy; Cave Johnson, of Ten- 
nessee, postmaster-general, and John Y. Mason, of Virginia, 
attorney-general. 

Among the principal recommendations in the first annual 
message of President Polk, were the re-establishment of the 
independent treasury system ; the revision of the tariff act 
of 1842, in such a manner as to have it conform to the 
revenue standard, with the substitution of ad valorem duties 
for minimums, or false valuations, and for specific duties; 
the increase of the navy by the construction of additional 
war steamers; and the graduation and reduction of the 



JAMES KNOX POLK. 461 

minimum rate at which the public lands were sold. These 
recommendations were cordially approved by Congress. 
The independent treasury law was revived, and again esta- 
blished under more favourable auspices than those which 
attended its first introduction into the financial system of 
the government. A new tariff* law — known as the tariff" 
of 1846 — of a purely revenue character, and based on a 
plan prepared by the secretary of the treasury, Mr. Walker, 
was also reported in the House of Representatives from the 
committee of Ways and Means. A protracted and able 
debate, in which the whole subject of the tariff" was viewed 
and reviewed, considered and reconsidered, for the hun- 
dredth time, engaged the attention of members for several 
weeks. The bill was finally adopted in the House by a 
vote of 114 to 94. In the Senate it was sustained by a 
vote of 28 to 27, and it went into operation on the 1st day 
of December, 1846. At this session, also, a bill was passed, 
and approved by the president, authorizing imported goods 
subject to duty to be warehoused in the public stores for 
a limited period — the duties to be paid when the goods 
were removed. 

But more exciting work was destined to occupy this ad- 
ministration. Mexico had refused to recognize the inde- 
pendence of Texas, and she now prepared for war. Great 
Britain claimed part of the Oregon territory, and evinced 
a determination to assert her claims by force of arms. The 
administration expressed a resolution to maintain the honour 
and assert the power of the republic in both difficulties ; 
but a resort to arms was only necessary against Mexico. 

The Mexican minister, when informed that the act of 
the annexation of Texas had been consummated, retired 
from Washmgton to his own country, and for a time all 
intercourse of an official nature between the two republics 
closed. In Mexico, the war party gained the ascendancy, 



462 JAMES KNOX POLK. 

drove General Herrera from power, and elevated General 
Paredes to the presidency. 

In September, 1845, President Polk authorized an inquiry 
of the Mexican government if it would be willing to receive 
a minister extraordinary, invested with ample powers for 
a termination of difficulties. To this request the Mexican 
Congress acceded, asking, meanwhile, that during the pro- 
posed negotiations, the American gulf squadron should be 
withdrawn from Vera Cruz. This being done, Mr. Slidell, 
the American envoy, proceeded to Mexico. Unfortunately, 
this was about the time that General Paredes assumed 
command, and the unsettled condition of the countrj^, to- 
gether with other events, caused that functionary to with- 
draw assent for the intended negotiations, on the pretence 
that as Mr. Slidell had been authorized to attend to the 
settlement of former difficulties concerning Mexican out- 
rages, his mission was not specially confined to the Texas 
question. 

On the 1st of March, 1846, Mr. Slidell requested of the 
Mexican government an acknowledgment of his official 
character. This was refused, and he returned to the United 
States. 

Meanwhile President Polk determined on sending an 
armed force into the territory of Texas, in order to protect 
it from an anticipated invasion. His message of December, 
1845, thus announces this measure to Congress : 

" Both the Congress and the convention of the people of 
Texas invited this government to send an army into their 
territory, to protect and defend them against a menaced 
attack. The moment the terms of annexation offered by 
the United States were accepted by Texas, the latter be- 
came so far a part of our country as to make it our duty 
to afford such protection and defence. I therefore deemed 
it proper, as a precautionary measure, to order a strong 
squadron to the coast of Mexico, and to concentrate a suffi- 



JAMES KNOX POLK. 463 

cient military force on the western frontier of Texas. Our 
army was ordered to take positions in the country between 
the Nueces and the Del Norte, and to repel any invasion 
of the Texan territory, which might be attempted by the 
Mexican forces. 

'' Our squadron in the gulf w^as ordered to co-operate 
with the army. But though our army and navy were 
placed in a position to defend our own and the rights of 
Texas, they were ordered to commit no act of hostility 
against Mexico, unless she declared war, or was herself the 
aggressor by striking the first blow. * * * 

" When orders were given during the past summer for 
concentrating a military force on the western frontier of 
Texas, our troops were widely dispersed, and in small de- 
tachments occupying posts remote from each other. The 
prompt and expeditious manner in which an army, embra- 
cing more than one-half of our peace establishment, was 
drawn together, on an emergency so sudden, reflects great 
credit on the officers who were intrusted with the execution 
of these orders, as well as upon the discipline of the army 
itself." 

The presence of this force, in Texas, was no doubt one 
renson for the rejection of Mr. Slidell. 

On the 21st of March, 1845, General Zachary Taylor 
was appointed commander-in-chief of the " Corps of Obser- 
vation," with orders to hold the forces under his command, 
readj^ to enter Texas whenever directed. On the 15th of 
June he was apprised of the probable speedy acceptance of 
the terms of annexation by the Texan Congress, and re- 
ceived orders of a confidential nature to enter the annexed 
territory. 

In August General Taylor marched with all his forces to 
Corpus Christi, where he remained until March 11th of the 
next year, when, under instructions from the war depart- 
ment, he broke up his camp, and pushed forward for the 



464 JAMES KNOX POLK. 

Rio Grande. At the Arroyo Colorado he was met by a 
2)arty of stragglers, who appeared disposed to oppose his 
crossing ; but no opposition was actually offered. On the 
24th, he took undisputed possession of Point Isabel. Pre- 
vious to this he had been met by a deputation, protesting 
against his march, and threatening war if it were persisted 
in. Some buildings at the point were fired by the Mexicans, 
but the conflagration was arrested by Colonel Twiggs. 
Leaving at this place four hundred and fifty men, with ten 
cannon and ample supplies of powder and ball, under Major 
John Munroe, General Taylor continued his advance. On 
the 28th he erected the national flag on the banks of the 
Rio Grande, opposite Matamoras. On the following day 
Brigadier-General Worth, with his staff", crossed the river, 
w^ith despatches to the municipal authorities. He was met 
by a Mexican delegation, the reception of the papers de- 
clined, and his request of an interview with the American 
consul refused. 

This unpropitious affair was but the commencement of 
difficulties. Immediately after, all communication with 
General Taylor was closed, and symptoms of approaching 
war daily multiplied. In order to prepare for it. General 
Taylor commenced the erection of a fort, to be defended by 
extensive works. More than one thousand men were em- 
ployed upon it night and day. This redoubt, under the 
name of Fort Brown, subsequently became famous for its 
successful defence against the bombardment of the enemy, 
and for the death of its defender. Major Jacob Brown. 

The death of Colonel Truman Cross, the first victim of 
the Mexican war, occurred on the 10th of April. He was 
waylaid, shot, and mutilated by a party of Mexicans, com- 
manded by Romano Falcon. 

On the 11th April, General Ampudia entered Matamoras 
with large reinforcements, and assumed supreme command. 
The occasion was one of exultation to the inhabitants. On 



JAMES KNOX POLK. 465 

the following day he addressed a note to General Taylor, 
requesting him to break up his camp and march for the 
Rio Nueces within twenty-four hours. It concludes as 
follows : 

" If you insist in remaining upon the soil of the depart- 
ment of Tamaulipas, it will clearly result that arms, and 
arms alone must decide the question ; and in that case I 
advise you that we accept the war to which with so much 
injustice on your part you provoke us, and that on our part 
this war shall be conducted conformably to the principles 
of the most civilized nations : that is to say that the law^s 
of nations and of war shall be the guide of my operations ; 
trusting that on your part the same will be observed." 

In his answer to the above. General Taylor replied, " The 
instructions under which I am acting, will not permit me 
to retrograde from the position I now occupy. In view of 
the relations between our respective governments, and the 
individual suffering which may result, I regret the alterna- 
tive which you offer; but at the same time wish it under- 
stood, that I shall by no means avoid such alternative, 
leaving the responsibihty with those who rashly commence 
hostilities." 

Ampudia did not attempt the enforcement of his threat, 
and General Taylor continued the strengthening of his 
fortifications; The death of Lieutenant Porter, who was 
killed (April 17th) by some Mexicans while searching for 
the body of Colonel Cross, tended to exasperate the Ameri- 
cans still further against the enemy. 

On the same day (April 17th), two American schooners 
bound for Matamoras were warned off the coast by General 
Taylor, and the mouth of the Rio Grande declared to be 
in a state of blockade. This proceeding drew forth an 
angry letter from Ampudia, who threatened serious results 
in case of its being persisted in. The reply of the general 
was firm but temperate. He entered at length into all the 



466 JAMES KNOX POLK. 

circumstances of mutual importance which had transpired 
since his march from Corpus Christi, asserting the blockade 
to be but a necessary consequence of the state of war, de- 
clared to exist by Ampudia himself. 

Immediately after the blockade of the Rio Grande, parties 
of Mexicans commenced crossing the river, spreading them- 
selves so as to occupy various positions along its eastern 
bank. These crossings took place both above and below 
General Taylor's camp; and apprehensive of being sur- 
rounded by an overwhelming force, he despatched a recon- 
noitering party in each direction. 

A party under the command of Captain Thornton was 
surrounded and compelled to surrender. These prisoners 
were remarkably well treated by the enemy. 

This affliir was the virtual commencement of the war. 
It was reported to the commanding general as a victory of 
the greatest importance, and the Mexican army confidently 
anticipated the destruction of their invaders. From this 
time the enemy threw off the reserve which had hitherto 
characterized their movements, and crossing the river in 
large numbers, spread themselves between Fort Brown and 
Point Isabel. To the American army, this was the most 
gloomy period of the war ; and when intelligence of its 
position reached the United States it created a sensation, 
and deep anxiety which showed how intimately the feel- 
ings of the people were twined around that distant band. 
But still General Taylor maintained his position, employ- 
ing his whole army in the strengthening of his works ; and 
at Point Isabel not only did Major Munroe employ all the 
means which had been left with him, but also landed the 
crews of the vessels in the harbour, and armed them as 
soldiers. 

At this juncture the lamented Captain Walker reached 
Point Isabel, with some Texas rangers. As his merit was 
w^ell known to the major, he was ordered to advance some 



JAMES KNOX POLK. 467 

distance beyond the works, and, if possible, open a commu- 
nication with Fort Brown. With seventy-five men he rode 
to a position about fourteen miles distant ; and soon after, 
(28th), on learning that General Taylor was surrounded, 
he determined to open a communication. After riding 
some miles, he came suddenly upon a large Mexican force, 
which he estimated at 1500, drawn up across the road. 
They were nearly all mounted. The captain ordered his 
men into some neighbouring chaparral; but before this 
could be effected, the enemy charged, and as most of the 
Americans were but raw recruits, they fled in confusion. 
A running fight ensued ; the captain was pursued to within 
cannon-shot of Point Isabel, and his men dispersed. The 
loss of the Mexicans was about thirty. 

On arriving at camp, Captain Walker offered to renew 
his effort to open a communication, provided four men 
would accompany him, alleging that the smaller the number 
on such an expedition the more chance of escape, in case 
of an attack. Such a proposition was regarded as despe- 
rate ; but on six men volunteering, the major granted the 
request, and the intrepid ranger set out. By his intimate 
knowledge of the road, he was enabled to elude the enemy 
and reach Fort Brown in safety. 

As soon as General Taylor had received information of 
the condition of Point Isabel, he determined to march with 
his army to its relief, leaving Major Jacob Brown with GOO 
men and a few cannon to defend the river fort. He 
marched on the 1st, and reached the main depot on the 
following day. The general's march was a source of un- 
bounded exultation to the Mexicans. It was reported in 
their military orders as a retreat, and the ruin of the inva- 
ding army began to be confidently expected. 

As a preliminary to this, the destruction of Fort Brown 
was to be accomplished. Accordingly, on the 3d, a battery 
stationed in Matamoras opened its fire upon the works, and 
54 



468 JAMES KNOX POLK. 

continued a brisk cannonade all day. It was answered by 
two eigliteen-pounders. At seven in the evening the firing 
stoj)ped, but was renewed at nine, and continued until mid- 
night.' One American was killed, but very little injury 
done on either side. Long before night Major Brown ceased 
firing, in consequence of the scarcity of ammunition. 

The cannonade had been heard at Point Isabel, and 
anxious to know the result. General Taylor despatched 
Captain May with about one hundred men, among whom 
was Walker and ten rangers, to Fort Brown. They set out 
in the evening, passed the enemy's camp under cover of the 
night, and halted by some chaparral within seven miles of 
the fort. Captain Walker then proceeded with his party, 
arrived at the works, and on announcing his name was ad- 
mitted. He was detained so long that May was obliged to 
return without him ; but on the 5th, to the great joy of 
General Taylor and the army, he arrived safely. Within 
some miles of the point, he had met a body of lancers, 
whom he charged and drove some miles; his escape, how- 
ever, from the Mexican army, whose scouts were in active 
watch for him, seems little less than miraculous. He re- 
ported to the general the gratifying intelligence that Major 
Brown was still confidently maintaining his position. 

At daylight on the 5th, the garrison at Fort Brown ob- 
served a battery in a field to the east, which soon opened 
its fire. The Americans were thus placed between two 
fires, which continued, with slight intermission, all day. 
They were renewed on the 6th, on the morning of which 
day Major Brown was mortally wounded by a bomb shell, 
and the command devolved on Captain Hawkins. In the 
evening that officer was summoned to surrender, and on 
refusing, the firing was commenced with greater vigour thaii 
ever, ceasing only when on the 8th another distant noise 
assured friend and foe that Generals Taylor and Arista had 



JAMES KNOX POLK. 469 

met in general battle. On the 9th it recommenced, but was 
finally terminated by the defeat of Arista. 

Upon the 8th of May, General Taylor, at the head of 
his small array, numbering 2300, came in sight of 6000 
Mexicans, at Palo Alto. He had left Point Isabel on the 
evening of the 7th, and after marching some miles en- 
camped in battle array. The march was resumed next 
morning. 

The train was closed up, the troops filled their canteens, 
and General Taylor promptly formed his line of battery as 
follows : — On the right was Ringgold's battery, 5th and 3d 
infantry ; then two eighteen-pounders ; then the artillery 
battalion. The left was composed of the 4th and 8tli 
infantry, and Duncan's battery. A daring reconnoissance 
by Lieut. J. E. Blake, showed the enemy's line to be of 
nearly twice the strength of Taylor's, with heavy reserves 
in the chaparral. ' The Mexicans opened the action with 
their artillery, which was moving slowly forward, and some 
got into the thickest of their shot and halted. The fire 
was returned with deadly efiect. 

The first and only important movement attempted by 
the enemy, was a detachment of their cavalry to make a 
detour around a clump of chaparral on the right, and 
attack the train. Captain Walker, of the Texas Rangers, 
promptly reported this, and the 5th infantry was detached 
to meet it, which it did handsomely, receiving the lancers 
in square, and driving them by a well-delivered volley. 
The cavalry then pushed on again for the train, and found 
the 8d infantry advancing in column of divisions upon 
them. They then retired, and as they repassed the 5tli 
they received a fire from Lieutenant Ridgely's two pieces, 
which had arrived at the nick of time. Two field-pieces, 
which were following the enemy's cavalry, were also driven 
back with them. 

Meanwhile the enemy's left was riddled by the eighteen- 



470 JAMES KNOX POLK. 

pounders, which slowly advanced up the road — Duncan's 
battery on the left, neglecting the enemy's guns, threw 
their fire into the Mexican infantry, and swept whole 
ranks. The 8th infantry on the left sulFered severely from 
the enemy's fire. The grass was set on fire at the end of 
an hour's cannonading, and obscured the enemy's position 
completely, and an interval of three-quarters of an hour 
occurred. During this period the American right, now 
resting on the eighteen-pounders, advanced along the wood, 
to the point originally occupied by the Mexican left, and 
when the smoke had cleared away sufficiently to show the 
enemy, the fire was resumed with increased rapidity and 
execution. Duncan divided his battery on the left, giving 
a section to Lieutenant Roland, to operate in front, and 
with the other he advanced beyond the burning grass 
(which was three feet high, and the flames rolled ten feet 
in the strong breeze), and seized the prolongation of the 
enemy's right, enfilading that flank completely. Night 
found the two armies in this position. 

In his official despatch. General Taylor thus sums up 
this action and its results : — 

" The strength of the enemy is believed to have been 
about 6000 men, with seven pieces of artillery, and 800 
cavalry. His loss is probably at least one hundred killed. 
Our strength did not exceed, all told, 2300, while our loss 
was comparatively trifling — four men killed, three officers 
and thirty-seven men wounded, several of the latter mor- 
tally. I regret to say that Major Ringgold, 2d artillery, 
and Captain Page, 4th infantry, are severely wounded. 
Lieutenant Luther, 2d artillery, slightly so." 

The Mexicans made a rapid retreat at night, but halted 
at Resaca de la Palma and occupied a strong position. On 
the 9 th General Taylor resumed his march, and early in 
the afternoon came up with the enemy. The general 
brought up his troops by battalions, and posted them, with 



JAMES KNOX POLK. 471 

brief orders to find the enemy with the bayonet, and placed 
the artillery where they could act in the road. The dra- 
goons were held in reserve, and as soon as the advance of 
our line had uncovered the Mexican batteries, General 
Taylor told Captain May that Ms time had come. May 
dashed upon it with his squadron, and lost one-third of it ; 
but he cleared the battery and captured its commander, 
General Vega, in the act of raising a port-fire to fire a piece 
himself. May took his sword, and brought the general off. 
The enemy re-manned the guns, and lost them a second 
time to the 5th infantry. Captain Barbour, of the 2d 
infantry, with his single company, and a few men from the 
5th, who joined him in the chaparral, threw his back 
against a clump of bushes, and received and gallantly 
repelled a charge of cavalry. Captain Duncan, with his 
battery, did terrible execution. The battle was a series of 
brilliant skirmishes and heavy shocks, in which fifteen 
hundred fighting men met six thousand hand to hand — 
overwhelmed them with the precision of their volleys and 
the steady coolness of the bayonet, and drove them from 
the field with the loss of their artillery, baggage, pack-mules, 
fixed ammunition, and near two thousand stand of muskets. 

The victorious general says, in his despatch to govern 
ment : — 

" Our victory has been complete. Eight pieces of artiller}' , 
with a great quantity of ammunition, three standards, and 
some one hundred prisoners have been taken ; among the 
latter, General La Vega, and several other officers. One 
general is understood to have been killed. The enemy has 
recrossed the river, and I am sure will not again molest us 
on this bank. The loss of the enemy in killed has been 
most severe. Our own has been very heavy, and I deeply 
regret to report that Lieutenant Inge, 2d dragoons. Lieu- 
tenant Cochrane, 4th infantry, and Lieutenant Chadbourne, 
8th infimtry, were killed on the field. Lieutenant-Colonel 



472 JAMES KNOX POLK. 

Payne., 4th artillery; Lieutenant-Colonel M'Intosh, Lieu- 
tenant Dobbins, 3d infantry; Captain Hooe and Lieutenant 
Fowler, 5th infantry ; and Captain Montgomery, Lieuten- 
ants Gates, Selden, M'Clay, Burbank, and Jordan, 8th 
infantry, were wounded." 

General Taylor distinguished himself by his humane 
treatment of the wounded Mexicans. On the 11th of May 
an exchange of prisoners took place, and Captain Thornton 
and his party joined their comrades in arms once more. 

On the 17th General Taylor crossed the Rio Grande and 
captured Matamoras without resistance, Ampudia having 
previously retired with his whole force. 

General Taylor, although now in possession of Mata- 
moras, found himself in no condition to advance further 
into the enemy's country. He was deficient not only in 
troops, but in supplies and the means of transportation. It 
became necessary, therefore, for him to remain at this post 
through the greater part of the summer, waiting for the 
necessary means of prosecuting the invasion. 

The 'Mexican inhabitants of Matamoras, though at first 
rather shy of the Americans, soon became familiarized with 
them, and readily furnished provisions, taking care to be 
very liberally paid for them. Assassinations of stragglers 
from the camp occasionally took place ; but on the whole 
the inhabitants seemed cheerfully to acquiesce in the 
altered state of afiairs. 

In the beginning of June General Taylor's force did not 
exceed 9000 men, including 750 stationed at Barita, and 
500 at Point Isabel. Reinforcements were coming in slowly 
from the different states of the Union, and, although he was 
anticipating the arrival of a sufficient force to warrant his 
advance towards Monterey, where the enemy was concen- 
trating his forces, neither men nor steamboats had yet 
arrived sufficient to enable him even to fix the time of his 
departure. 



JAMES KNOX POLK. 473 

In the mean time the Mexicans were not only discouraged 
by defeat, but distracted by internal dissensions. Paredes, 
the president of the republic, was reported to have super- 
seded his defeated generals and assumed the command ; but 
his authority was defied by Arista, who was organizing 
one of those insurrections which are so frequent in the 
political history of Mexico. The election of the 16th of 
June, however, resulted in the choice of Paredes as presi- 
dent, and General Bravo, the governor of Vera Cruz, as 
vice-president. 

By the military arrangements which followed this reor- 
ganization of the government. General Arevalo was sent 
to Monterey, and Bravo to Mexico, while Mejia was placed 
in the command of the northern army, and Ampudia was 
ordered to San Luis Potosi. Monterey, being considered 
the most probable scene of General Taylor's next operar 
tions, was strongly fortified and furnished with provisions 
and munitions of war. Before the end of June General 
Taylor was strongly reinforced by the arrival of numerous 
bodies of fresh volunteers from various parts of the Union ; 
but his means of transportation were still deficient. 

Meantime Captain M'Culloch with the Texan rangers 
had seized and occupied the Mexican ports of Reynosa, 
Camargo, and Mier, without resistance on the part of the 
enemy. It was not until the 5th of August, nearly three 
months after the battle of Resaca de la Palma, that Gene- 
ral Taylor was able to take up his line of march from 
Matamoras for Camargo. On arriving at that place. Gene- 
ral Worth was detached to San Juan, while Captain Wall 
occupied Reynosa, and General Twiggs had been left in 
command of Matamoras. Towards the end of August, 
General Worth was ordered to advance to Seralvo and there 
to await further orders. From this port he sent advices to 
General Taylor on the 5th of September, that Monterey 



474 JAMES KNOX POLK. 

had just been reinforced by the arrival of 3000 men under 
General Ampudia, thus increasing the garrison to 4000. 

This important information determined General Taylor 
to advance and immediately attack Monterey. He accord- 
ingly took up his line of march towards Seralvo on the 7th, 
leaving General Patterson in command of all the forces 
stationed between Camargo and Matamoras. 

Disencumbering his troops of all unnecessary baggage, 
and sending forward his supplies on pack-mules to Seralvo, 
Taylor now hastened eagerly on. On his arrival at Seralvo, 
instead of waiting for further reinforcements or fresh orders 
before attacking so formidable a fort with so light a force, 
he pushed forward for Monterey with his main body, con- 
sisting of but little more than 6000 men. 

On the morning of the 19 th of September, the army en- 
camped at the " Walnut Springs," within three miles of the 
city of Monterey. Here they could survey the prospect 
before them — Monterey, seated in a beautiful valley, bosom- 
ed among lofty and imposing mountains on the north, east, 
and south, and open to a plain on the east, fortified with 
thick stone walls in the old Spanish fashion of another 
century, with all the apparatus of ditches and bastions, and 
lowering upon them with deep-mouthed cannon. From 
their elevated position the Americans could see in part 
what they had already learnt from spies and deserters, that 
the flat-roofed stone houses of the city itself, had been con- 
verted into fortifications. Every street was barricaded, and 
every house-top was bristling with musketry. On one side 
the Americans could see the Bishop's Palace, a strong fort 
well fortified ; on the other, redoubts well manned ; and in 
the rear of all, a river. 

General Taylor's official despatch gives the clearest and 
most faithful account of the siege. He says : — " The con- 
figuration of the heights and gorges in the direction 
of the Saltillo road, as visible from the point attained by 



JAMES KNOX POLK. 475 

our advance on the morning of the 19th, led me to suspect 
that it was practicable to turn all the works in that direc- 
tion, and thus cut off the enemy's line of communication. 
After establishing my camp at the ' Walnut Springs,' three 
miles from Monterey, the nearest suitable position, it was, 
accordingly, my first care to order a close reconnoissance 
of the ground in question, which was executed on the even- 
ing of the 19 th, by the engineer officers under the direction 
of Major Mansfield. A reconnoissance of the eastern ap- 
proaches was at the same time made by Captain Williams, 
Topographical Engineers. The examination made by 
Major Mansfield proved the entire practicability of throwing 
forward a column to the Saltillo road, and thus turning the 
position of the enemy. Deeming this to be an operation of 
essential importance, orders were given to Brevet-Brigadier 
General Worth, commanding the second division, to march 
with his command on the 20th; to turn the hill of the 
Bishop's Place : to occupy a position on the Saltillo road, and 
to carry the enemy's detached works in that quarter, where 
practicable. The first regiment of Texas mounted volun- 
teers, under command of Colonel Hays, was associated 
with the second division on this service. Captain Sanders, 
Engineers, and Lieutenant Meade, Topographical Engineers, 
were also ordered to report to General Worth for duty with 
his column. 

" At two o'clock P. M. on the 20th, the 2d division took 
up its march. It was soon discovered, by officers who were 
reconnoitering the town, and communicated to General 
Worth, that its movement had been perceived, and that 
the enemy was throwing reinforcements towards the Bishop's 
Palace, and the height which commands it. To divert his 
attention as far as practicable, the first division, under 
Brigadier-General Twiggs, and field division of volunteers, 
under Major-General Butler, were displayed in front of the 
town until dark. Arrangements were made at the same 



476 JAMES KNOX POLK. 

time to place in battery, during the night, at a suitable 
distance from the enemy's main work, the citadel, two 
twenty-four pounder howitzers, and a ten-inch mortar, with 
a view to open a fire on the following day, when I proposed 
to make a diversion in favour of General Worth's move- 
ment. The 4th infantry covered this battery during the 
night. General Worth had in the mean time reached and 
occupied, for the night, a defensive position just without 
range of a battery above the Bishop's Palace, having made 
a reconnoissance as far as the Saltillo road. 

" Before proceeding to report the operations of the 21st 
and the following days, I beg leave to state that I shall 
mention in detail only those which were conducted against 
the eastern extremity of the city, or elsewhere, under my 
immediate direction, referring you for the particulars of 
General Worth's operations, which were entirely detached, 
to his own full report transmitted herewith. 

'^ Early on the morning of the 21st, I received a note from 
General Worth, written at half-past nine o'clock the night 
before, suggesting what I had already intended, a strong 
diversion against the centre and left of the town, to favour 
his enterprise against the heights in rear. The infantry 
and artillery of the 1st division, and the field division of 
volunteers, were ordered under arms, and took the direction 
of the city, leaving one company of each regiment as a camp 
guard. The 2d dragoons, under Lieutenant-Colonel May, 
and Colonel Woods' regiment of Texas mounted volunteers, 
under the immediate direction of General Henderson, were 
directed to the right to support General Worth, if necessary, 
and to make an impression, if practicable, upon the upper 
quarter of the city. Upon approaching the mortar battery, 
the 1st and 3d regiments of infantry, and battalion of Balti- 
more and Washington volunteers, with Captain Bragg's 
field battery — the whole under the command of Lieutenant- 
Colonel Garland — were directed towards the lower part of 



JAMES KNOX POLK. 477 

the town, with orders to make a strong demonstration, and 
carry one of the enemy's advanced works, if it could be 
done without too heavy loss. Major Mansfield, Engineers, 
and Captain Williams and Lieutenant Pope, Topographical 
Engineers, accompanied this column, Major Mansfield being 
charged with its direction, and the designation of points of 
attack. 

" In the mean time, the mortar, served by Captain Ramsay, 
of the ordnance, and the howitzer battery under Captain 
Webster, 1st artillery, had opened their fire upon the 
citadel, which was deliberately sustained, and answered 
from the work. General Butler's division had now taken 
up a position in rear of this battery, when the discharges of 
artillery, mingled finally with a rapid fire of small arms, 
showed that Lieutenant Garland's command had become 
warmly engaged. I now deemed it necessary to support 
this attack, and accordingly ordered the 4th infantry, and 
three regiments of General Butler's division, to march at 
once, by the left flank, in the direction of the advanced 
work at the lower extremity of the town, leaving one regi- 
ment (1st Kentucky) to cover the mortar and howitzer 
battery. By some mistake, two companies of the 4th in- 
fantry did not receive this order, and, consequently, did not 
join the advance companies until some time afterwards. 

"Lieutenant-Colonel Garland's command had approached 
the town in a direction to the right of the advanced work 
(No. 1), at the north-eastern angle of the city, and the 
engineer officer, covered by skirmishers, had succeeded in 
entering the suburbs and gaining cover. The remainder of 
this command noW' advanced and entered the town under 
a heavy fire of artillery from the citadel and the works on 
the left, and of musketry from the houses and small works 
in front. A movement to the right was attempted, with a 
view to gain the rear of No. 1, and carry that work, but 
the troops were so much exposed to a fire which they could 



478 JAMES KNOX POLK. 

not effectually return, and had already sustained such 
severe loss, particularly in officers, that it was deemed best 
to withdraw them to a more secure position. Captain 
Backus, 1st infantry, however, with a portion of his own 
and other companies, had gained the roof of a tannery, 
which looked directly into the gorge of No. 1, and from 
which he poured a most destructive fire into that work and 
upon the strong building in its rear. This fire happily 
coincided in point of time with tlie advance of a portion of 
the volunteer division upon No. 1, and contributed largely 
to the fall of that strong and important work. 

" The three regiments of the volunteer division, under the 
immediate command of Major-General Butler, had in the 
mean time advanced in the direction of No. 1. The leading 
brigade, under Brigadier-General Quitman, continued its 
advance upon that work, preceded by three companies of 
the 4th infantry, while General Butler, with the 1st Ohio 
regiment, entered the town to the right. The companies 
of the 4th infantry had advanced within short range of the 
work, when they were received by a fire that almost in one 
moment struck down one-third of the officers and men, and 
rendered it necessary to retire and effect a conjunction with 
tlie two other companies then advancing. General Quit- 
man's brigade, though suffering most severely, particularly 
in the Tennessee regiment, continued its advance, and 
finally carried the work in handsome style, as well as the 
strong building in its rear. Five pieces of artillery, a con- 
siderable supply of ammunition, and thirty prisoners, 
including three officers, fell into our hands. 

" Major-General Butler, with the 1st Ohio regiment, after 
entering the edge of the town, discovered that nothing was 
to be accomplished in his front, and at this pointy yielding 
to the suggestions of several officers, I ordered a retrograde 
moment; but learning almost immediately from one of my 
staff that the battery No. 1 was in our possession, the order 



JAMES KNOX POLK. 479 

was countermanded, and I determined to hold the battery 
and defences already gained. General Butler, with the 1st 
Ohio regiment, then entered the town at a point further to 
the left, and marched in the direction of the battery No. 2. 
While making an examination with a view to ascertain the 
possibility of carrying this second work by storm, the ge- 
neral was wounded, and soon after compelled to quit the 
field. As the strength of No. 2, and the heavy musketry 
fire flanking the approach, rendered it impossible to carry 
it without great loss, the 1st Ohio regiment was withdrawn 
from the town. 

" Fragments of the various regiments engaged were now 
under cover of the captured battery and some buildings in 
its front, and on the right. The field battery of Captains 
Bragg and Ridgely was also partially covered by the bat- 
tery. An incessant fire was kept on this position from 
battery No. 2, and other works on its right, and from the 
citadel on all our approaches. General Twiggs, though 
quite unwell, joined me at this point, and was instrumental 
in causing the artillery captured from the enemy to be 
placed in battery, and served by Captain Ridgely, against 
No. 2, until the arrival of Captain Webster's howitzer bat- 
tery, which took its place. In the mean time, I directed 
such men as could be collected of the 1st, 3d, and 4th regi- 
ments and Baltimore battalion, to enter the town, penetrat- 
ing to the right, and carry the 2d battery if possible. Tliis 
command, under Lieutenant-Colonel Garland, advanced be- 
yond the bridge " Parisima," when, finding it impracticable 
to gain the rear of the 2d battery, a portion of it sustained 
themselves for some time in that advanced position ; but 
as no permanent impression could be made at that point, 
and the^main object of the general operation had been 
effected, the connnand, including a section of Captain 
Ridgely's battery, which had joined it, was withdrawn to 
battery No. 1. During the absence of this column, a de- 



480 JAMES KNOX POLK. 

monstration of cavalry was reported in the direction of the 
citadel. Captain Bragg, who was at hand, immediately 
galloped with his battery to a suitable position, from which 
a few discharges effectually dispersed the enemy. Captain 
Miller, 1st infantry, was despatched with a mixed command 
to support the battery on this service. The enemy's lancers 
had previously charged upon the Ohio and a part of the 
Mississippi regiments, near some fields at a distance from 
the edge of the town, and had been repulsed with consi- 
derable loss. A demonstration of cavalry on the opposite 
side of the river was also dispersed in the course of the 
afternoon by Captain Ridgely's battery, and the squadrons 
returned to the city. At the approach of evening, all the 
troops that had been engaged were ordered back to the 
camp, except Captain Ridgely's battery and the regular in- 
fantry of the 1st division, who were detailed as a guard 
for the works during the night, under command of Lieu- 
tenant-Colonel Garland. One battalion of the 1st Kentucky 
regiment was ordered to reinforce this command. Intrench- 
ing tools were procured, and additional strength was given 
to the works, and protection to the men, by working-parties 
during the night, under the direction of Lieutenant Scar- 
ritt, engineers. 

" The main object proposed in the morning had been ef- 
fected. A powerful diversion had been made to favour tlie 
operations of the 2d division, one of the enemy's advanced 
works had been carried, and we now had a strong foothold 
in the town. But this had not been accomjolished without 
a very heavy loss, embracing some of our most gallant and 
accomplished officers. Captain Williams, Topographical 
Engineers ; Lieutenants Terrett and Dil worth, 1st infantry ; 
Lieutenant Woods, 2d infantry ; Captains Morris and Field, 
BrevetrMajor Barbour, Lieutenants Irwin and Hazlitt, 3d 
infantry; Lieutenant Hoskins, 4th inhmtry; Lieutenant- 
Colonel Watson, Baltimore battalion; Captain Allen and 



JAMES KNOX POLK. 481 

Lieutenant Putnam, Tennessee regiment, and Lieutenant 
Hett, Ohio regiment, were killed, or have since died of 
wounds received in this engagement, while the number and 
rank of the officers wounded gives additional proof of the 
obstinacy of the contest, and the good conduct of our 
troops. The number of killed and wounded incident to 
the operations in the lower part of the city on the 21st 
is 394. 

•^^ Early in the morning of this day (21st), the advance 
of the 2d division had encountered the enemy in force, and 
after a brief but sharp conflict, repulsed him with heavy 
loss. General Worth then succeeded in gaining a position 
on the Saltillo road, thus cutting the enemy's line of com- 
munication. From this position the two heights south of 
the Saltillo road were carried in succession, and the guns 
taken in one of them turned upon the Bishop's Palace. 
These important successes were fortunately obtained with 
comparatively small loss — Captain M'Kavett, 8th infantry, 
being the only officer killed. 

" The 22d day of September passed without any active 
operations in the lower part of the city. The citadel and 
other works continued to fire at parties exposed to their 
range, and at the work now occupied by our troops. The 
guard left in it the preceding night, except Captain Ridgely's 
company, was relieved at mid-day by General Quitman's 
brigade. Captain Bragg's battery was thrown under cover 
in front of the town, to repel any demonstration of cavalry 
in that quarter. At dawn of day the height above the 
Bishop's Palace was carried, and soon after meridian the 
Palace itself was taken, and its guns turned upon the fugi- 
tive garrison. The object for which the 2d division was 
detached had thus been completely accomplished, and I 
felt confident that with a strong force occupying the road 
and heights in his rear, and a good position below the city 



482 JAMES KNOX POLK. 

in our possession, the enemy could not possibly maintain 
the town. 

"During the night of the 22d the enemy evacuated 
nearly all his defences in the lower part of the city. This 
was reported to me early in the morning of the 23d, by 
General Quitman, who had already meditated an assault 
upon those works. I immediately sent instructions to that 
officer, leaving it to his discretion to enter the city, cover- 
ing his men by the houses and walls, and advance carefully 
so far as he might deem prudent. 

" After ordering the remainder of the troops as a reserve, 
under the orders of Brigadier-General Twiggs, I repaired 
to the abandoned works, and discovered that a portion of 
General Quitman's brigade had entered the town, and were 
successfully forcing their way towards the principal plaza. 
I then ordered up the 2d regiment of Texas mounted 
volunteers, who entered the city, dismounted, and, under 
the immediate orders of General Henderson, co-operated 
with General Quitman's brigade. Caj)tain Bragg's battery 
was also ordered up, supported by the 3d infantry, and 
after firing for some time at the cathedral, a portion of it 
was likewise thrown into the city. Our troops advanced 
from house to house, and from square to square, until they 
reached a street but one square in rear of the principal 
plaza, in and near which the enemy's force was mainly 
concentrated. This advance was conducted vigorously, 
but with due caution, and although destructive to the 
enemy, was attended with but small loss on our part. 
Captain Ridgely, in the mean time, had served a captured 
piece in battery No. 1 against the city, until the advance 
of our men rendered it imprudent to fire in the direction 
of the cathedral. I was now satisfied that we could ope- 
rate successfully in the city, and that the enemy had retired 
from the lower portion of it to make a stand behind his 
barricades. As General Quitman's brigade had been on 



JAMES KNOX POLK. 483 

duty the previous niglit, I determined to witlidraw the 
troops to the evacuated works, and concert with General 
Worth a combined attack upon the town. The troops 
accordingly fell back dehberatelj^, in good order, and re- 
sumed their original positions, General Quitman's brigade 
being relieved after nightfall by that of General Hainer. 
On my return to camp, I met an officer with the intelli- 
gence that General Worth, induced by the firing in the 
lower part of the city, was about making an attack at the 
upper extremity, which had also been evacuated by the 
enemy to a considerable distance. I regretted that this 
information had not reached me before leaving the city, 
but still deemed it inexpedient to change my orders, and 
accordingly returned to camp. A note from General 
Worth, written at 11 o'clock P. M., informed me that he 
had advanced to within a short distance of the principal 
plaza, and that the mortar (which had been sent to his 
division in the morning) was doing good execution within 
effective range of the enemy's position. 

" Desiring to make no further attempt upon the city 
without complete concert as to the lines and mode of 
approach, I instructed that officer to suspend his advance 
until I could have an interview with him on the following 
moi'uing, at his head quarters. 

"Early in the morning of the 24th I received, through 
Colonel Moreno, a communication from General Ampudia, 
proposing to evacuate the town ; which, with the answer, 
were forwarded with my first despatch. I arranged with 
Colonel Moreno a cessation of fire until twelve o'clock, at 
which hour I would receive the answer of the Mexican 
general at General Worth's head quarters, to which I soon 
repaired. In the mean time. General Ampudia had signi- 
fied to General Worth his desire for a personal interview 
with me, to which I acceded, and which finally resulted in 

56 



484 JAMES KNOX POLK. 

a capitulation, placing the town and the material of war, 
with certain exceptions, in our possession. 

" Upon occupying the city, it was discovered to be of 
great strength in itself, and to have its approaches care- 
fully and strongly fortified. The town and works were 
armed with forty-two j^ieces of cannon, well supplied with 
ammunition, and manned with a force of at least 7000 
troops of the line, and from 2000 to 3000 irregulars. The 
force under my orders before Monterey, as exhibited by the 
accompanying return, was 425 officers and 6220 men. Our 
artillery consisted of one ten-inch mortar, two twenty-four 
pounder howitzers, and four light field batteries of four 
guns each — the mortar being the only piece suitable to the 
operations of a siege. 

"Our loss is 12 officers and 108 men killed; 31 officers 
and 337 men wounded. That of the enemy is not known, 
but is believed considerably to exceed our own." 

The brilliant success of General Taylor astonished his 
own countrymen, and they believed him invincible. Still 
the enemy retained their resolute spirit, and prepared for 
new conflicts. 

Monterey became the main depot of General Taylor. It 
is an excellent city for the head quarters of an army, being 
provided with every kind of defence, vast magazines for 
supplies, hospitals, stores, and good water. Soon after 
General Wool, with the central division of the army, arrived 
at Monclova, from his march against Chihuahua. He was 
ordered with twenty-four hundred men and six field-pieces 
to Parras ; and General Worth with twenty-five hundred 
men and eight pieces to Saltillo. Both these places were 
occupied without opposition. 

Before the capture of Monterey, a revolution had occur- 
red at the Mexican capital, and General Santa Anna had 
been created dictator. He immediately hastened to San 
Luis Potosi, and began to raise an efficient army. 



JAMES KNOX POLK. 485 

In November he found himself at the head of twenty 
thousand men, most of them raw recruits, and poorly 
equipped. It was his wish to clothe and discipline this 
force before marching against Taylor, but such was the 
popular clamour for immediate action, that faction began 
again to show herself. Some even denounced him as a 
traitor. Accordingly the general was obliged to sacrifice 
his superior judgment to the popular will, and in the same 
month we find him proceeding slowly toward his opponent's 
camp. 

About this time General Taylor received a letter from 
the war department, announcing that the terms of capitu- 
lation at Monterey, had not met the approval of govern- 
ment, and directing him immediately to recommence 
hostilities. This he announced to Santa Anna, requesting 
at the same time the release of some prisoners detained at 
San Luis. The Mexican commander answered in a cour- 
teous manner, acknowledging the end of the truce, and 
liberated the prisoners, paying the expenses of their 
journey. 

On the 15th of December, Taylor marched to meet his 
enemy. Information had been received that General Urrea, 
with a large body of cavalry, was threatening Victoria ; 
and that Santa Anna with the main army was rapidly ap- 
proaching Saltillo. General Patterson was in command at 
this place ; and anxious for his safety, the commander sent 
General Quitman to join him with a reinforcement, and 
with the main army fell back to Monterey. But at this 
time Wool entered Saltillo with fresh troops, enabling 
General Taylor again to advance toward Victoria, which he 
reached on the 30th. At this place he received a letter 
from General Scott, requesting nearly all his regular troojjs 
for the campaign on the gulf coast, thus again forcing him 
to retire to Monterey. Here he remained until February, 



486 JAMES KNOX POLK. 

when the arrival of vokmteers, sweUing his force to five 
thousand men, enabled him again to press forward. 

On the 2d of this month, General Santa Anna left San 
Luis Potosi, at the head of twenty-three thousand men, 
and after a march in which his troops sustained difficulties 
of the most appalling nature, he approached General Tay- 
lor's position [February 20th] at Agua Nueva. On the 
same day the latter broke up his camp, and retired to a 
strong mountain pass, called Angostura, three miles from 
the hacienda of Buena Vista. While removing some stores 
a small party of Americans was defeated by the Mexicans ; 
and at noon on the 22d, General Taylor was summoned to 
surrender. We give his own account of the subsequent 
operations : 

" Our troops were in position, occupying a line of remark- 
able strength. The road at its point becomes a narrow 
defile, the valley on its right being rendered quite impracti- 
cable for artillery by a system of deep and impassable gul- 
leys, while on the left a succession of rugged ridges and 
precipitous ravines extend far back toward the mountain 
which bounds the valley. The features of the ground were 
such as nearly to paralyze the artillery and cavalry of the 
enemy, while his infantry could not derive all the advan- 
tage of its numerical superiority. In this position we pre- 
pared to receive him. Captain Washington's battery (4th 
artillery) was posted to command the road, while the 1st 
and 2d Illinois regiments, under Colonels Hardin and Bis- 
sell, each eight companies (to the latter of which was at- 
tached Captain Conner's company of Texas volunteers), 
and the 2d Kentucky, under Colonel M'Kee, occupied the 
crests of the ridges on the left and in rear. The Arkansas 
and Kentucky regiments of cavalry, commanded by Colo- 
nels Yell and H. Marshall, occupied the extreme left near 
the base of the mountain, while the Indiana brigade, under 
Brigadier-General Lane (composed of the 2d and 3d regi- 



JAMES KNOX POLK. 487 

ments, under Colonels Bowles and Lane), the Mississippi 
riflemen, under Colonel Davis, the squadrons of the 1st and 
2d dragoons, under Captain Steen and Lieutenant-Colonel 
May, and the light batteries of Captains Sherman and 
Bragg, 3d artillery, were held in reserve. 

" At eleven o'clock I received from General Santa Anna 
a summons to surrender at discretion, which, with a copy 
of my reply, I have already transmitted. The enemy still 
forbore his attack, evidently waiting for the arrival of his 
rear columns, which could be distinctly seen by our look- 
outs as they approached the field. A demonstration made 
on his left caused me to detach the 2d Kentucky regiment 
and a section of artillery to our right, in which position 
they bivouacked for the night. In the mean time the 
Mexican light troops had engaged ours on the extreme left 
(composed of parts of the Kentucky and Arkansas cavalry, 
dismounted, and a rifle battalion from the Lidiana brigade, 
under Major Gorman, the whole commanded by Colonel 
Marshall), and kept up a sharp fire, climbing the mountain 
side, and apparently endeavouring to gain our flank. Three 
pieces of Captain Washington's battery had been detached 
to the left, and were supported by the 2d Indiana regiment. 
An occasional shell was thrown by the enemy into this 
part of our line, but without effect. The skirmishing of 
the light troops was kept up with trifling loss on our part 
until dark, when I became convinced that no serious attack 
would be made before the morning, and returned with the 
Mississippi regiment and squadron of 2d dragoons, to Sal- 
tillo. The troops bivouacked without fires, and laid upon 
their arms. A body of cavalry, some fifteen hundred 
strong, had been visible all day in rear of the town, having 
entered the valley through a narrow pass east of the city. 
This cavalry, commanded by General Minon, had evidently 
been thrown in our rear to break up and harass our retreat, 
and perhaps make some attempt against the town if practi- 



JAMES KNOX POLK. 

cable. The city was occupied by four excellent companies 
of Illinois volunteers, under Major Warren of the 1st regi- 
ment. A field-work, which commanded most of the ap- 
proaches, was garrisoned by Captain Webster's company, 
1st artillery, and armed with two twenty-four pound howit- 
zers, while the train and head-quarter camp was guarded 
by two companies of Mississippi riflemen, under Captain 
Rogers, and a field-piece commanded by Captain Shover, 
3d artillery. Having made these dispositions for the pro- 
tection of the rear, I proceeded on the morning of the 23d 
to Buena Vista, ordering forward all the other available 
troops. The action had commenced before my arrival on 
the field. 

" During the evening and night of the 22d, the enemy 
had thrown a body of light troops on the mountain side, 
with the purpose of outflanking our left ; and it was here 
that the action of the 23d commenced at an early hour. 
Our riflemen, under Colonel Marshall, who had been rein- 
forced by three companies under Major Trail, 2d Illinois 
volunteers, maintained their ground handsomely against a 
greatly superior force, holding themselves under cover, and 
using their weapons with deadly effect. About eight o'clock 
a strong demonstration was made against the centre of our 
position, a heavy column moving along the road. This 
force was soon dispersed by a few rapid and well-directed 
shots from Captain Washington's battery. In the mean 
time the enemy was concentrating a large force of infantry 
and cavalry under cover of the ridges, with the obvious in- 
tention of forcing our left, which was posted on an exten- 
sive plateau. The 2d Indiana and 2d Illinois regiments 
formed this part of our line, the former covering three 
pieces of light artillery, under the orders of Captain O'Brien 
— Brigadier-General Lane being in tlie immediate com- 
mand. In order to bring his men within effective range, 
General Lane ordered the artillery and 2d Indiana regi- 



JAMES KNOX POLK, 489 

meiit forward. The artillery advanced within musket 
range of a heavy body of Mexican infantry, and was served 
against it with great effect, but without being able to check 
its advance. The infantry ordered to its support had fallen 
back in disorder, being exposed, as well as the battery, not 
only to a severe fire of small arms from the front, but also 
to a murderous cross-fire of grape and canister from a 
Mexican battery on the left. Captain O'Brien found it im- 
possible to retain his position without support, but was only 
able to withdraw two of his pieces, all the horses and can- 
noneers of the third piece being killed or disabled. The 2d 
Indiana regiment, which had fallen back as stated, could 
not be rallied, and took no further part in the action, except 
a handful of men, who, under its gallant colonel, Bowles, 
joined the Mississippi regiment, and did good service, and 
those fugitives, who, at a later period in the day. assisted 
in defending the train and depot at Buena Vista. This 
portion of our line having given way, and the enemy ap- 
pearing in overwhelming force against our left flank, the 
light troops which had rendered such good service on the 
mountain were compelled to withdraw, which they did, for 
the most part, in good order. Many, however, were not 
rallied until they reached the depot at Buena Vista, to the 
defence of Avhich they afterwards contributed. 

" Colonel Bissell's regiment (2d Illinois), which had been 
joined by a section of Captain Sherman's battery, had be- 
come completely outflanked, and was compelled to fall back, 
being entirely unsupported. The enemy was now pouring 
masses of infantry and cavalry along the base of the moun- 
tain on our left, and was gaining our rear in great force. 
At this moment I arrived upon the field. The Mississippi 
regiment had been directed to the left before reaching the 
position, and immediately came into action against the 
Mexican infantry which had turned our flank. The 2d 
Kentucky regiment, and a section of artillery under Cap- 



490 JAMES KNOX POLK. 

tain Bragg, had previously been ordered from the right to 
reinforce our left, and arrived at a most opportune moment. 
That regiment, and a portion of the 1st Illinois, under 
Colonel Hardin, gallantly drove the enemy, and recovered 
a portion of the ground we had lost. The batteries of 
Captains Sherman and Bragg were in position on the pla- 
teau, and did much execution, not only in front, but 
particularly upon the masses which had gained our rear. 
Discovering that the enemy was heavily pressing upon the 
Mississippi regiment, the 3d Indiana regiment, under 
Colonel Lane, was despatched to strengthen that part of 
our line, which formed a crotchet perpendicular to the first 
line of battle. At the same time Lieutenant Kilburn, with 
a piece of Captain Bragg's battery, was directed to support 
the infintry there engaged. The action was, for a long 
time, warmly sustained at that point — the enemy making 
several efforts, both with infantry and cavalry, against our 
line, and being always repulsed with heavy loss. I had 
placed all the regular cavalry, and Captain Pike's squadron 
of Arkansas horse, under the orders of Brevet Lieutenant- 
Colonel May, with directions to hold in check the enemy's 
column, still advancing to the rear along the base of the 
mountain, which was done in conjunction with the Ken- 
tucky and Arkansas cavalry under Colonels Marshall and 
Yell. 

"In the mean time our left, which was still strongly 
threatened by a superior force, was farther strengthened by 
the detachment of Captain Bragg's, and a portion of Cap- 
tain Sherman's batteries to that quarter. The concentra- 
tion of artillery fire upon the masses of the enemy along 
the base of the mountain, and the determined resistance 
offered by the two regiments opposed to them, had created 
confusion in their ranks, and some of the corps attempted to 
effect a retreat upon their main line of battle. The squad- 
ron of the 1st dragoons, under Lieutenant Rucker, was now 



JAMES KNOX POLK. 491 

ordered up the deep ravine which these retreating corps 
were endeavouring to cross, in order to charge and disperse 
them. The sqwadron proceeded to the point indicated, but 
could not accompUsh the object, being exposed to a heavy 
fire from a battery estabhshed to cover the retreat of those 
corps. While the squadron was detached on this service, 
a large body of the enemy was observed to concentrate on 
our extreme left, apparently with a view of making a de- 
scent upon the hacienda of Buena Vista, where our train 
and baggage were deposited. Lieutenant-Colonel May was 
ordered to the support of that point, with two pieces of 
Captain Sherman's battery under Lieutenant Eeynolds. Li 
the mean time, the scattered forces near the hacienda, com- 
posed in part of Majors Trail and Gorman's commands, had 
been, to some extent, organized under the advice of Major 
Munroe, chief of artillery, with the assistance of Major 
Morrison, volunteer staff, and were posted to defend the 
position. Before our cavalry had reached the hacienda, 
that of the enemy had made its attack ; having been hand- 
somely met by the Kentucky and Arkansas cavalry under 
Colonels Marshall and Yell. The Mexican column imme- 
diately divided, one portion sweeping by the depot, where 
it received a destructive fire from the force which had col- 
lected there, and then gaining the mountain opposite, under 
a fire from Lieutenant Reynolds's section, the remaining 
portion regaining the base of the mountain on our left. Li 
the charge at Buena Vista, Colonel Yell fell gallantly at the 
head of his regiment; we also lost Adjutant Vaughan, of 
the Kentucky cavalry — a young officer of much promise. 
Lieutenant-Colonel May, who had been rejoined by the 
squadron of the 1st dragoons, and by portions of the Ar- 
kansas and Indiana troops, under Lieutenant-Colonel Roane 
and Major Gorman, now approached the base of the moun- 
tain, holding in check the right flank of the enemy, upon 

57 



492 JAMES KNOX POLK. 

whose masses, crowded in the narrow gorges and ravmes, 
our artillery was doing fearful execution. 

" The position of that portion of the JMexican army 
which had gained our -rear was now very critical, and it 
seemed doubtful whether it could regain the main body. 
At this moment I received from General Santa Anna a 
message by a staff officer, desiring to know what I wanted ? 
I immediately despatched Brigadier-General Wool to the 
Mexican general-in-chief, and sent orders to cease firing. 
Upon reaching the Mexican lines General Wool could not 
cause the enemy to cease their fire, and accordingly returned 
without having an interview. The extreme right of the 
enemy continued its retreat along the base of the mountain, 
and finally, in spite of all our efforts, effected a junction 
with the remainder of the army. 

"During the day, the cavalry of General Minon had 
ascended the elevated plain above Saltillo, and occupied 
the road from the city to the field of battle, where th^y 
intercepted several of our men. Approaching the town, 
they were fired upon by Captain Webster from the redoubt 
occupied by his company, and then moved off towards the 
eastern side of the valley, and obliquely towards Buena 
Vista. At this time, Captain Shover moved rapidly for- 
ward with his piece, supported by a miscellaneous command 
of mounted volunteers, and fired several shots at the 
cavalry with great effect. They were driven into the 
ravines which lead to the lower valley, closely pursued by 
Captain Shover, who was farther supported by a piece of 
Captain Webster's battery, under Lieutenant Donaldson, 
which had advanced from the redoubt, supported by Cap- 
tain Wheeler's company of Illinois volunteers. The enemy 
made one or two efforts to charge the artillery, but was 
finally driven back in a confused mass, and did not again 
appear upon the plain. 

" In the mean time, the firing had partially ceased upon 



JAMES KNOX POLK. 493 

the principal field. The enemy seemed to confine his 
eiforts to the protection of his artillery, and I had left the 
plateau for a moment, when I was recalled thither by a 
very heavy musketry fire. On regaining that position, I 
discovered that our infantry (Illinois and 2d Kentucky) 
had engaged a greatly superior force of the enemy — evi- 
dently his reserve — and that they had been overwhelmed 
by numbers. The moment was most critical. Captain 
O'Brien, with two jaieces, had sustained this heavy charge 
to the last, and was finally obliged to leave his guns on the 
field — his infantry support being entirely routed. Captain 
Bragg, who had just arrived from the left, was ordered at 
once into battery. Without any infantry to support him, 
and at the imminent risk of losing his guns, this officer 
came rapidly into action, the Mexican line being but a few 
yards from the muzzle of his pieces. The first discharge 
of canister caused the enemy to hesitate, the second and 
third drove him back in disorder, and saved the day. The 
2d Kentucky regiment, which had advanced beyond sup- 
porting distance in this affair, was driven back and closely 
pressed by the enemy's cavalry. Taking a ravine which 
led in the direction of Captain Washington's battery, their 
pursuers became exposed to his fire, which soon checked 
and drove them back with loss. In the mean time, the 
rest of our artillery had taken position on the plateau, 
covered by the Mississippi and 3d Indiana regiments, the 
former of which had reached the ground in time to pour a 
fire into the right flank of the enemy, and thus contribute 
to his repulse. In this last conflict we had the misfortune 
to sustain a very heavy loss. Colonel Hardin, 1st Illinois, 
and Colonel M'Kee and Lieutenant-Colonel Clay, 2d Ken- 
tucky regiment, fell at this time while gallantly leading 
their commands. 

" No farther attempt was made by the enemy to force 
our position, and the approach of night gave an opportunity 



494 JAMES KNOX POLK. 

to pay proper attention to the wounded, and also to refresh 
the soldiers, who had been exhausted by incessant watch- 
fulness and combat. Though the night was severely cold, 
the troops were compelled for the most to bivouac without 
fires, expecting that morning would renew the conflict. 
During the night the wounded were removed to Saltillo, 
and every preparation made to receive the enemy, should 
he again attack our position. Seven fresh companies were 
drawn from the town, and Brigadier-General Marshall, 
with a reinforcement of Kentucky cavalry and four heavy 
guns, under Captain Prentiss, 1st artillery, was near at 
hand, when it was discovered that the enemy had aban- 
doned his position during the night. Our scouts soon 
ascertained that he had fallen back upon Agua Nueva. 
The great disparity of numbers, and the exhaustion of our 
troops, rendered it inexpedient and hazardous to attempt 
pursuit. A staff officer was despatched to General Santa 
Anna to negotiate an exchange of prisoners, which was 
satisfactorily completed on the following day. Our own 
dead were collected and buried, and the Mexican wounded, 
of which a large number had been left upon the field, were 
removed to Saltillo, and rendered as comfortable as circum- 
stances would permit. 

" On the evening of the 26th, a close reconnoissance wa^ 
made of the enemy's position, which was found to be occu- 
pied only by a small body of cavalry, the infantry and 
artiller}^ having retreated in "the direction of San Luis 
Potosi. On the 27th, our troops resumed their former camp 
at Agua Nueva, the enemy's rear-guard evacuating the 
place as we approached, leaving a considerable number of 
wounded. It was my purpose to beat up his quarters at 
Encarnacion early the next morning, but upon examination, 
the weak condition of the cavalry horses rendered it unad- 
visable to attempt so long a march without water. A 
command was finally despatched to Encarnacion, on the 



JAMES KNOX POLK. 495 

1st of March, under Colonel Belknap. Some two hundred 
wounded, and about sixty Mexican soldiers were found 
there, the army having passed on in the direction of Mate- 
huala, with greatly reduced numbers, and suffering much 
from hunger. The dead and dying were strewed upon the 
road and crowded the buildings of the hacienda. 

" The American force engaged in the action of Buena 
Vista is shown, by the accompanying field report, to have 
been three hundred and forty-four officers, and four thou- 
sand four hundred and twenty-five men, exclusive of the 
small command left in and near Saltillo. Of this number, 
two squadrons of cavalry and three batteries of light artil- 
lery, making not more than four hundred and fifty-three 
men, composed the only force of regular troops. The 
strength of the Mexican army is stated by General Santa 
Anna, in his summons, to be twenty thousand ; and that 
estimate is confirmed by all the information since obtained. 
Our loss is two hundred and sixty-seven killed, four hun- 
dred and fifty-six wounded, and twenty-three missing. Of 
the numerous wounded, many did not require removal to 
the hospital, and it is hoped that a comparatively small 
number will be permanently disabled. The Mexican loss 
in killed and wounded may be fairly estimated at fifteen 
hundred, and will probably reach two thousand. At least 
five hundred o^ their killed were left upon the field of 
battle. We have no means of ascertaining the number of 
deserters and dispersed men from their ranks, but it is 
known to be very great." 

The evening of the 23d found both armies in the same 
relative position, and on the same ground they had occupied 
in the morning. During the night, however, Santa Anna 
withdrew his shattered forces toward Potosi. The Ameri- 
cans expected an attack before morning, and were pre- 
pared for it ; but under cover of the darkness, Santa Anna 



496 JAMES KNOX POLK. 

withdrew his starving followers to Agua Nueva. Soon 
afterward General Taylor fell back toward Monterey. 

On the 2d of March an escort of two hundred men, and 
a train of one hundred and fifty wagons, under Major Gid- 
dings, was attacked by General Urrea, at the head of a large 
party of lancers. The attack was so sudden that the train 
and escort were divided into two parties, the smaller of 
which Urrea summoned to surrender. A desultory conflict 
ensued in which the Americans succeeded in reuniting, and 
repelling their opponents with the loss of about forty. The 
major had two soldiers killed and fifteen teamsters. He 
proceeded without further molestation to Seralvo, where 
Colonel Curtis arrived in a few days with reinforcements, 
and assumed command. The whole party then commenced 
a pursuit of Urrea, which was continued until the IGth, 
when it met General Taylor with a portion of the main 
army, also in pursuit. The whole force, consisting of May's 
dragoons, Bragg's artillery, and Colonel Curtis's men, led 
by General Taylor, pushed after the Mexicans with renewed 
vigour; but, notwithstanding every exertion, Urrea suc- 
ceeded in escaping beyond the mountains. 

After this pursuit, General Taylor retired to Walnut 
Springs, where, on account of the small number of his 
troops, he was obliged to remain inactive during the sum- 
mer and fall of 1847. * 

His splendid victories had given him a high reputation 
among his countrymen, and they placed the deepest confi- 
dence in him. But he had no further opportunities of 
engaging in active service in the field. 

The military operations in other parts of the Mexican 
territory were completely successful. The plan of con- 
ducting the contest reflected much credit upon the adminis- 
tration, and especially upon Secretary Marcy. 

In May, 1846, President Polk was authorized by Con- 
gress to accept the services of fifty thousand volunteers, to 



JAMES KNOX POLK. 497 

continue the war which had commenced on the Eio Grande. 
Of this number ten companies composed a force destined 
to act against Santa Fe. They were formed of five com- 
panies United States dragoons, two of foot, two hght artil- 
lery, and one volunteer horse. This army was placed under 
the direction of Colonel Stephen W. Kearny, who in a 
confidential letter from Secretary Marcy, dated June 3d, 
1846, received in substance the following instructions : To 
organize for the expedition an additional force of one thou- 
sand men, in order to proceed from Santa Fe against Upper 
California; to establish a government there after taking 
possession ; to receive as volunteers a number of Mormon 
and other emigrants, recently settled in the province ; to 
co-operate with the naval force in the Pacific ; to open trade 
with the Indians ; and to respect the rights of the Califor- 
nians. The letter concludes as follows : " I am directed by 
the president to say that the rank of brevet brigadier-gene- 
ral wall be conferred on you as soon as you commence your 
movement towards California, and sent round to you by 
sea, or over the country, or to the care of the commandant 
of our squadron in the Pacific. In that way cannon, arms, 
ammunition, and supplies for the land forces, will be sent 
you." 

The depot of Kearny's force was Fort Leavensworth. 
On the 27th of June his advance commenced its march ; 
and by the 1st of August more than sixteen hundred men 
were concentrated at Bent's fort, having marched a distance 
of five hundred and sixty-four miles. The march was re- 
sumed on the 3d, and after a toilsome journey over frightful 
prairies, they arrived, August 12th, at the mountains near 
the Rio Grande. 

Signs of hostility now began to appear; and messages 
arrived from General Armigo, governor of Santa Fe, re- 
questing Kearny to advance no further, or at least to con- 
sent to negotiations for peace. The tone of these was. 



498 JAMES KNOX POLK. 

dignified but earnest. The American commander replied 
that he came to take possession ; that the peaceable inhabit- 
ants should be well treated, but that the vengeance of both 
army and government would be poured upon all others. 
On the march the colonel received a despatch from govern- 
ment constituting him brigadier-general. 

On the 18th of August General Kearny took possession 
of Sante Fe, in the name of the United States. The oath 
of allegiance was administered to the alcalde and inhabit- 
ants, and a military territorial government established. 
No opposition was experienced, Governor Armigo and his 
army having fled at the approach of the Americans. Gen^ 
ral Kearny was proclaimed governor, erected a fort (called 
Fort Marcy), and published a proclamation to the inhabit- 
ants. 

After seeing everything in a state of tranquillity, Ge- 
neral Kearney commenced his march, September 25th, for 
the distant region of California. 

Before the general had accomplished this arduous under- 
taking, Colonel Doniphan, with his citizen volunteers, com- 
menced one of equal magnitude, and pregnant with events 
of paramount importance. When Kearny left Santa Fe he 
ordered the colonel to proceed as soon as practicable into 
Chihuahua, and report to General Wool, who with the 
centre division had been intrusted with the conquering of 
that province. 

On the 17 th of December, Doniphan, with 924 men, 
began his expedition. On the 24th they reached the Jor- 
nada lake, into which runs the Brazito river, more than 
twenty miles from the Paso del Norte, of the eastern 
mountain range. Here they were informed that the Mexi- 
cans, to the number of 1000, were collected at the Pass, 
ready for an attack. The Americans numbered about 600, 
the remainder being sick. On the afternoon of the follow- 
ing day (Christmas), the enemy were seen approaching, 



JAMES KNOX POLK. 499 

and, when within eight hundred yards, extended themselves 
so as to cover the American flank. An othcer approached, 
carrying a bhick flag, and after prochairaing no quarters, re- 
joined his column, which immediately charged at a rapid 
gallop. The conflict was but short — the Mexicans being 
defeated with the loss of thirty killed, and driven into the 
mountains. Eight were captured, six of whom subse- 
quently died; and their single piece of cannon was also 
taken. The Americans had seven wounded. On the 27th 
Doniphan entered the town of El Paso, without resistance, 
where he was reinforced by Major Clark's artillery. 

On the 8th of February, 1847, the whole command (924 
men) left the Paso del Norte, and marched for Chihuahua. 
On the 28th they fought the great battle of Sacramento. 

At the Pass, naturally strong, 4000 Mexicans were 
posted, with complete fortifications. The battle commenced 
about three o'clock, and by evening, the enemy w^ere routed 
with great slaughter. The loss of Doniphan's command 
was one man killed, one mortally wounded, and seven 
slightly wounded. The loss of the enemy was the entire 
artillery, baggage, and stores, about 300 men killed, the 
same number wounded, and forty made prisoners. In many 
respects this was one of the most brilliant achievements of 
the war. 

On the 1st of March Colonel Doniphan took possession 
of Chihuahua, w^here he remained three weeks. At the 
end of this time, having received orders from General 
Wool, he marched, April 25th, for Saltillo. On the road. 
Captain Reid defeated about fifty Indians near El Paso, 
May 13, capturing 1000 horses. On the 22d of May the 
command reached Wool's encampment, and on the 27th, 
that of General Taylor. 

As the term of service of these gallant men had expired, 
they now commenced their return. Early in June they 
68 



500 JAMES KNOX POLK. 

marched through Matamoras, and on the 16th arrived af 

New Orleans. 

Meanwhile a military and naval force under the direction, 
firstj of Commodore Sloat, and afterwards of Commodore 
Stockton, had taken possession of California, and published 
a proclamation to the inhabitants, claiming it as part of 
the United States. The head quarters of his forces was the 
Ciudad de los Angeles. An elective government was esta- 
blished, officers elected, and a tariff on imports established. 
Stockton then proceeded .to San Francisco. The fleet in 
the mean while blockaded the entire coast of California, and 
on the 19th of November, 1846, captured the town of 
Panuco. 

While the commodore was congratulating himself upon 
the favourable condition of affairs, the inhabitants of Los 
Angeles suddenly arose in revolt, and compelled the sur- 
render of Captain Gillespie, with thirty men. Immediately 
afler the whole region south of Monterey (California) were 
in arms. Stockton, accompanied by Colonel Fremont, 
hastened back, and commenced a desultory war with the 
insurrectionists, which lasted until January, 1847, when, 
in the battle of San Gabriel (8th and 9th), the Mexicans 
were defeated, and subordination restored. Kearny, who 
had lately arrived in California, aided Stockton in this 
battle. 

A dispute now arose between Kearny and Stockton, 
concerning the government of California. The former pro- 
duced his commission as governor from the president ; but 
for several reasons, Stockton declared it null. To this 
opinion Colonel Fremont assented. Kearny submitted 
until the arrival of reinforcements, when Stockton left the 
territory, and the general arrested Fremont, and sent him 
to the United States. After a most thorough investigation, 
which lasted more than two months, he was found guilty of 
mutiny, disobedience of orders, and unofficer-like conduct, 



JAMES KNOX POLK. 501 

and sentenced to be dismissed from the army. Being re- 
commended, however, to the clemency of the president, the 
sentence was remitted, and the colonel immediately reported 
for duty. 

At the end of 1846, a large portion of Mexico had been 
subdued by the American forces. A decisive campaign 
against Vera Cruz, the chief port, and the city of Mexico 
itself, was then determined upon by the administration. 
General Scott, commander-in-chief of the army, was ordered 
to the Rio Grande, where he arrived on the 1st of January, 
1847. About twelve thousand troops were soon concentra- 
ted at Point Isabel. Vera Gi'uz was the first object of 
attack. It was strongly fortified, and its castle, called San 
Juan de Ulloa, was deemed impregnable. 

After considerable delay in completing necessary arrange- 
ments, the fleet under Commodore Conner, having on board 
the commander and his army, arrived off Vera Cruz. The 
landing is thus described by the commodore himself: 

" Whilst we were transferring the troops from the ships 
to the surf-boats (sixty-five in number), I directed the 
steamers Spitfire and Vixen, and the five gunboats, to form 
a line parallel with and close in to the beach, to cover the 
landing. This order was promptly executed, and these 
small vessels, from the lightness of their draft, were enabled 
to take positions within good grape-range of the shore. As 
the boats severally received their complements of troops, 
they assembled in a line, abreast, between the fleet and the 
gunboats ; and when all were ready, they pulled in to- 
gether, under the guidance of a number of officers of the 
squadron, who had been detailed for this purpose. Genernl 
Worth commanded this, the first line of the army, and had 
the satisfaction of forming his command on the beach and 
neighbouring heights just before sunset. Four thousand 
five hundred men were thus thrown on shore, almost simul- 
taneously. No enemy appeared to offer us the slightest 



502 JAMES KNOX POLK. 

opposition. The first line being landed, the boats in succes- ' 
sive trips relieved the men-of-war and transports of the 
remaining troops by ten o'clock, P. m. The whole, army, 
(save a few straggling companies), consisting of upwards 
of twelve thousand men, were thus safely deposited on 
shore, without the slightest accident of any kind." 

An account of this celebrated siege we give in General 
Scott's own words. His first despatch is dated March 23d, 
1847: 

" Yesterday, seven of our ten-inch mortars being in bat- 
tery, and the labours for planting the remainder of our 
heavy metal being in progress, I addressed, at two o'clock, P. 
M., a summons to the governor of Vera Cruz, and within 
two hours limited by the bearer of the flag, received the 
governor's answer. Copies of the two papers (marked re- 
spectively, A and B) are herewith enclosed. 

" It will be perceived that the governor, who it turns out 
is the commander of both places, chose, against the plain 
terms of the summons, to suppose me to have demanded 
the surrender of the castle and of the city — when, in fact, 
from the non-arrival of our heavy metal — principally mor- 
tars — I was in no condition to threaten the former. 

"On the return of the flag with that reply, I at once 
ordered the seven mortars, in battery, to open upon the 
city. In a short time the smaller vessels of Commodore 
Perry's squadron — two steamers and five schooners — ac- 
cording to previous arrangement with him, approached the 
city within about a mile and an eighth, whence, being par- 
tially covered from the castle — an essential condition to 
their safety — they also opened a brisk fire upon the city. 
This has been continued, uninterruptedly, by the mortars, 
only with a few intermissions, by the vessels, up to nine 
o'clock this morning, when the commodore very properly 
called them off a position too daringly assumed. 

" Our three remaining mortars are now (twelve o'clock. 



JAMES KNOX POLK. 503 

M.) in battery, and the whole ten in activity. To-morrow, 
early, if the city should continue obstinate, batteries Nos. 
4 and. 5 will be ready to add their fire : No. 4, consisting 
of four twenty-four pounders and two eight-inch paixhan 
guns, and No. 5 (naval battery), of three thirty-two 
pounders and three eight-inch paixhans — the guns, officers, 
and sailors landed from the squadron — our friends of the 
navy being unremitting in their zealous co-operation, in 
^very mode and form. 

" So far, we know that our fire upon the city has been 
highly effective — particularly from the batteries of ten-inch 
mortars, planted at about 800 yards from the city. In- 
cluding the preparation and defence of the batteries, from 
the beginning — now many days — and notwithstanding the 
heavy fire of the enemy from city and castle, we have onl}'- 
had four or five men wounded, and one officer and one man 
killed, in or near the trenches. That officer was Captain 
John R. Vinton, of the United States 3d artillery, one of 
the most talented, accomplished, and effective members of 
the arijiy, and was highly distinguished in the brilliant 
operations at Monterey. He fell, last evening, in the 
trenches, where he was on. duty as field and commanding 
officer, universally regretted. I have just attended his 
honoured remains to a soldier's grave, in full view of the 
enemy, and within reach of his guns. 

" Thirteen of the long-needed mortars — leaving twenty- 
seven, besides heavy guns, behind — have arrived, and two 
of them landed. A heavy norther then set in (at meridian) 
which stopped that operation, and also the landing of shells. 
Hence the fire of our mortar batteries has been slackened, 
since two o'clock to-day, and cannot be reinvigorated until 
we shall again have a smooth sea. In the mean time I 
shall leave this report open for journalizing events that may 
occur up to the departure of the steamship-of-war Princeton, 
with Commodore Conner, wlxo, I learn, expects to leave the 



504 JAMES KNOX POLK. 

anchorage off Sacrificios, for the United States, the 25th 
instant. 

"March 24. The storm having subsided in the night, 
we commenced this forenoon, as soon as the sea became a 
little smooth, to land shot, shells, and mortars. 

"March 25. All the batteries, Nos. 1, 2, 3, 4, and 5, 
are in awful activity this morning. The effect is, no doubt, 
very great, and I think the city cannot hold out beyond to- 
day. To-morrow morning many of the new mortars will 
be in a position to add their fire, when, or after the delay 
of some twelve hours, if no proposition to surrender should 
be received, I shall organize parties for carrying the city by 
assault. So far the defence has been spirited and obstinate." 

In a subsequent letter he writes : 

" The flag of the United States of America floats tri- 
umphantly over the walls of this city and the castle of St. 
Juan de Ulloa. 

" Our troops have garrisoned both since ten o'clock. It 
is now noon. Brigadier-General Worth is in command of 
the two places. 

"Articles of capitulation were signed and exchanged at 
a late hour night before the last. 

" I have heretofore reported the principal incidents of the 
siege, up to the 25th instant. Nothing of striking interest 
occurred, until early in the morning of the next day, when 
I received overtures from General Landero, on whom Ge- 
neral Morales had devolved the principal command." 

" Yesterday, after the norther had abated," says General 
Scott, "and the commissioners appointed by me early the 
morning before had again met those appointed by General 
Landero, Commodore Perry sent ashore his second in com- 
mand. Captain Aulick, as a commissioner on the part of 
the navy. Although not included in my specific arrange- 
ment made with the Mexican commander, I did not 
hesitate, with proper courtesy, to desire that Captain Auhck 



JAMES KNOX POLK. 505 

might be duly introduced and allowed to participate in the 
discussions and acts of the commissioners who had been 
reciprocally accredited. The original American commis- 
sioners were, Brevet Brigadier-General Worth, Brigadier- 
General Pillow, and Colonel Totten. Four more able or 
judicious officers could not have been desired." 

The city and castle of Vera Cruz surrendered on the fol- 
lowing terms, which were rigidly adhered to : 

" 1. The whole garrison, or garrisons, to be surrendered 
to the arms of the United States, as prisoners of war, the 
29th instant, at ten o'clock, A. M. ; the garrisons to be per- 
mitted to march out with all the honours of war, and to lay 
down their arms to such officers as may be appointed by 
the general-in-chief of the United States armies, and at a 
point to be agreed upon by the commissioners. 

" 2. Mexican officers shall preserve their arms and pri- 
vate effects, including horses and horse-furniture, and to be 
allowed, regular and irregular officers, as also the rank and 
file, five days to retire to their respective homes, on parole, 
as hereinafter prescribed. 

" 3. Coincident with the surrender, as stipulated in 
article 1, the Mexican flags of the various forts and stations 
shall be struck, saluted by their own batteries ; and imme- 
diately thereafter. Forts Santiago and Conception, and the 
castle of San Juan de UUoa, occupied by the forces of the 
United States. 

" 4. The rank and file of the regular portion of the 
prisoners to be disposed of after surrender and parole, as 
their general-in-chief may desire, and the irregular to be 
permitted to return to their homes. The officers, in respect 
to all arms and descriptions of force, giving the usual pa- 
role, that the said rank and file, as well as themselves, shall 
not serve again until duly exchanged. 

" 5. All the materid of war, and all public property of 
every description found in the city, the castle of San Juan 



506 JAMES KNOX POLK. 

de Ulloa and their dependencies, to belong to the United 
States; but the armament of the same, (not injured or de- 
stroyed in the further prosecution of the actual war), may 
be considered as liable to be restored to Mexico by a definite 
treaty of peace. 

" 6. The sick and wounded Mexicans to be allowed to 
remain in the city with such medical officers and attendants, 
and officers of the army, as may be necessary to their care 
and treatment. 

" 7. Absolute protection is solemnly guarantied to per- 
sons in the city, and property, and it is clearly under- 
stood that no private building or property is to be taken 
or used by the forces of the United States, without 
previous arrangement with the owners, and for a fair equi- 
valent. 

"8. Absolute freedom of religious worship and ceremonies 
is solemnly guarantied." 

The loss of the besiegers was only twelve killed and 
sixty-five wounded. The loss of the enemy was very 
severe during the bombardment. 

After remaining more than two weeks with his army at 
Vera Cruz, General Scott commenced his advance, April 
8th, for the capital. On the 11th, Twiggs's division reached 
the Plan del Rio, where, in a few days, it was joined by 
those of Quitman and Worth. 

At this time Santa Anna was stationed at the strong 
mountain pass of Sierra Gordo, which he had fortified with 
the greatest precaution. Here he awaited the arrival of 
the Americans with firmness, calculating, that the advan- 
tages of his position, and his superiority of force, would give 
him an easy victory over the army of General Scott. 

The American commander formed his plan of attack 
with remarkable skill, and his orders were executed with 
equally wonderful precision. On the 17th of April, Colonel 



JAMES KNOX POLK. 507 

Harney took possession of a strong post to the left of the 
Sierra. 

Everything being ready for a general attack, Twiggs's 
division moved, on the morning of the 18th, against the 
main fortress, Pillow's against that on the right, and 
Shields's and Worth's to the road, in order to cut off all 
retreat. The troops composing the first, headed by Colonel 
Harney, pushed forward under a tremendous fire, and soon 
swept the works with the bayonet ; but La Vega succeeded 
in repulsing General Pillow. He finally surrendered, 
however, on ascertaining that Santa Anna was defeated. 
Tlie latter fled with precipitation, accompanied by Generals 
Almonte and Canalizo, and about half the army escaped 
by flight. He was so hotly pursued by Colonel Harney, as 
to leave behind his state carriage, trunks, and several 
thousand dollars in silver. 

In this battle the Americans lost about two hundred 
and fifty in killed and wounded. General Shields was 
shot through the lungs by a musket ball, but, to the 
astonishment of all, survived. The loss of the Mexicans 
was about the same, exclusive of prisoners, who numbered 
three thousand. So great a quantity of stores, small arms, 
cannon, ammunition, &c., were taken, that General Scott, 
in his despatch to government, stated that he was embar- 
rassed with the results* of victory. The force of the enemy 
in this battle numbered eleven thousand; that of the 
Americans, six thousand. 

The several divisions of the army rapidly pursued their 
success. On the 19 th Twiggs entered Jalapa without 
opposition. On the 22d General Worth took undisputed 
possession of the town and castle of Perote, one of the 
strongest in Mexico. Tuspan, on the sea coast, had been 
previously taken (18th) by a portion of the gulf squadron, 
under Commodore Perry. Worth remained near Jalapa 
59 



508 JAMES KNOX POLK. 

until the 15th of May, when he captured the city of 
Puebla. 

The army remained at Puebla until August, when rein- 
forcements having arrived, General Scott began his famous 
march for the city of Mexico. The troops passed the Rio 
Frio without opposition, and on the 10th reached Ayotla. 
Here a careful reconnoissance was made of the position El 
Penon, a fortification strongly defended by both nature and 
art. It had also been garrisoned with so much care, that 
General Scott determined to avoid it by marching round 
Lake Chalco, over a road discovered by General Worth. 
On the evening of the 17th, Worth's division arrived near 
San Antonio, after a most toilsome march over a rugged, 
broken road. On the following day Captain Thornton was 
killed while reconnoitering the Mexican position. The 
troops lay on their arms all night, and on the following 
day, at one o'clock P. M., Generals Smith and Riley 
attacked Contreras. This strong fortress was carried before 
daylight of the 20th, the enemy being completely routed 
with immense slaughter. An officer thus describes the 
taking of Churubusco : 

" General Worth had made a demonstration on San 
Antonio, where the enemy was fortified in a strong haci- 
enda; but they retired, on his approach, to Churubusco, 
where the works were deemed impregnable. They con- 
sisted of a fortified hacienda, which was surrounded by a 
high and thick wall on all sides. Inside the wall was a 
stone building, the roof of which was flat and higher than 
the walls. Above all this was a stone church, still higher 
than the rest, and having a large steeple. The wall was 
pierced with loopholes, and so arranged that there were 
two tiers of men firing at the same time. They thus 
had four different ranges of men firing at once, and four 
ranks were formed on each range and placed at such a 
height that they could not only overlook all the surround- 



JAMES KNOX POLK. 509 

ing country, but at the same time they had a plunging fire 
upon us. Outside the hacienda, and completely command- 
ing the avenues of approach, was a field-work extending 
around two sides of the work and protected by a deep, wet 
ditch, and armed with seven large pieces. The hacienda 
is at the commencement of the causeway leading to the 
western gate of the city, and had to be passed before getting 
on the road. About three hundred yards in the rear of 
this work, another field-work had been built where a cross 
road meets the causeway, at a point where it crosses a 
river, thus forming a bridge head, or tete de pont. This was 
also very strong and armed with three very large pieces of 
cannon. The works were surrounded on every side by 
large corn-fields, which were filled with the enemy's skir- 
mishers, so that it was difficult to make a reconnoissance. 
It was therefore decided to make the attack immediately, 
as they were full of men and extended for nearly a mile on 
the road to the city, completely covering the causeway. 
The attack commenced about one p. M. General Twiggs's 
division attacked on the side towards which they approached 
the fort, i. e., opposite the city. General Worth's attacked 
the bridge head, which he took in about an hour and a half; 
while Generals Pillow and Quitman were on the extreme 
left, between the causeway and Twiggs's division. The 
rifles were on the left, and in the rear of the work, intrusted 
by General Scott with the task of charging the work in 
case General Pierce gave way. The firing was most tre- 
mendous — in fact one continued roll while the combat 
lasted. The enemy, from their elevated position, could 
readily see our men, who were unable to get a clear view 
from their position. Three of the pieces were manned by 
' The Deserters,' a body of about one hundred, who had 
deserted from the ranks of our army during the war. 
They were enrolled in two companies, commanded by a de- 
serter, and were better uniformed and disciplined than the 



510 JAMES KNOX POLK. 

rest of the army. These men fought most desperatelj^, and 
are said not only to have shot down several of our officers 
whom they knew, but to have pulled down the white flag 
of surrender no less than three times. 

" The battle raged most furiously for about three hours, 
when both sides having lost a great many, the enemy 
began to give way. As soon as they commenced retreating, 
Kearny's squadron passed through the tite de pont, and 
charging through the retreating column, pursued them to 
the very gate of the city. As they got within about five 
hundred yards of the gate, they were opened upon with 
grape and canister, and several officers wounded. 

" The official returns give our loss in killed and wounded 
in the two battles of Contreras and Churubusco at eleven 
hundred and fifty, besides officers. The Mexican loss is 
five hundred killed in the second battle, one thousand 
wounded, and eleven hundred prisoners, exclusive of officers. 
Three more generals were taken, among them General 
Bincon, and Anaya, the provisional president; also ten 
pieces of cannon, and an immense amount of ammunition 
and stores. Santa Anna, in his report, states his loss in 
killed, wounded, and missing, at twelve thousand. He 
has only eighteen thousand left out of thirty thousand, 
which he gives as his force on the 20th, in both actions." 

Mindful of the desire so often expressed by President 
Polk to conquer a peace, General Scott halted his victorious 
troops within sight of the capital, and offered terms of an 
armistice preparatory to the opening of negotiations for a 
peace. The offer was gladly accepted, and an armistice 
concluded. 

During the cessation of hostilities, court-martials, ap- 
pointed by General Scott, tried and sentenced Sergeant 
Riley, and seventy others, who had deserted at various 
times. Fifty were sentenced to be hung, but were after- 
wards pardoned. The remainder, including the sergeant. 



JAMES KNOX POLK. 511 

having joined the Mexicans prior to the declaration of war, 
were branded, publicly whipped, sentenced to solitary con- 
finement, with a chain and ball, while the army shall 
remain in Mexico, and afterwards to be drummed out of 
service. All these men were captured fighting desperately 
at Churubusco. 

Overtures of peace were now made by Mr. Trist, the 
American plenipotentiary, who agreed that the United 
States should pay a certain sum for California, and retain 
Texas with the Rio Grande as the boundary. To the 
latter condition the Mexicans would not assent. On the 
2d of September, Mr. Trist handed in his ultimatum on 
boundaries, and the negotiators adjourned to reassemble on 
the 6th. 

General Scott thus details the operations subsequent to 
the meeting of the commissioners : 

" Some infractions of the truce, in respect to our supplies 
from the city, were" earlier committed, followed by apolo- 
gies, on the part of the enemy. Those vexations I was 
willing to put down to the imbecility of the government, 
and waived pointed demands of reparation while any hope 
remained of a satisfactory termination of the war. But on 
the 5th, and more fully on the 6th, I learned that as soon 
as the ultimatum had been considered in a grand council 
of ministers and others, President Santa Anna, on the 4th 
or 5th, without giving me the slightest notice, actively 
recommenced strengthening the military defences of the 
city, in gross violation of the third article of the armistice. 

"On that information, which has since received the 
fullest verification, I addressed to him my note of the 6th. 
His reply, dated the same day, received the next morning, 
was absolutely and notoriously false, both in recrimination 
and explanation. I enclose copies of both papers, and have 
had no subsequent correspondence with the enemy. Being 
delayed by the terms of the armistice more than two weeks, 



612 JAMES KNOX POLK. 

we had now, late on the 7th, to begm to reconnoitre the 
different approaches to the city, within our reach, before I 
could lay down any definite plan of attack. 

" The same afternoon a large body of the enemy was dis- 
covered hovering about the Molinos del Rey, within a mile 
and a third of this village, where I am quartered with the 
general staff and Worth's division. 

" It might have been supposed that an attack upon us 
was intended ; but knowing the great value to the enemy 
of those mills (Molinos del Rej^), containing a cannon 
foundry, with a large deposit of powder in Casa Mata near 
them; and having heard, two days before, that many 
church bells had been sent out to be cast into guns, the 
enemy's movement was easily understood, and I resolved 
at once, to drive him early the next morning, to seize the 
powder, and to destroy the foundry. 

"Another motive for this decision — leaving the general 
plan of attack upon the city for full reconnoissances — was, 
that we knew our recent captures had left the enemy not 
a fourth of the guns necessary to arm, all at the same time, 
the strong works at each of the eight city gates ; and we 
could not cut the communication between the capital and the 
foundry without first taking the formidable castle on the 
heights of Chapultepec, which overlooked both and stood 
between." 

The management of this important assault was intrusted 
to Major-General Worth. He describes his operations as 
follows : 

" Having, in the course of the 7th, accompanied the 
general-in-chief, on a reconnoissance of the formidable dis- 
positions of the enemy, near and around the castle of Cha- 
pultepec, they were found to exhibit an extended line of 
cavalry and infantry, sustained by a field-battery of four 
guns — occupying directly, or sustaining, a system of de- 
fences collateral to the castle and summit. This examina- 



JAMES KNOX POLK. 51S 

tion gave fair observation of the configuration of the grounds, 
and the extent of the enemy's force, but, as appeared in the 
sequel, an inadequate idea of the nature of his defences — 
they being skilfully masked. 

" The general-in-chief ordered that my division, reinforced, 
should attack and carry those lines and defences, capture 
the enemy's artillery, destroy the machinery and material 
supposed to be in the foundry (El Molino del Rey) ; but 
limiting the operations to that extent. After which my 
command was to be immediately withdrawn to its position 
in the village of Tacubaya. 

"A close and daring reconnoissance by Captain Mason, 
of the engineers, made on the morning of the 7th, repre- 
sented the enemy's lines collateral to Chapultepec to be as 
follows : his left rested upon and occupied a group of strong 
stone buildings, called El Molino del Rey, adjoining the 
grove at the foot of the hill of Chapultepec, and directly 
under the guns of the castle which crowns its summit. 
The right of this line rested upon another stone building, 
called Casa Mata, situated at the foot of the ridge that 
slopes gradually from the heights above the village of 
Tacubaya to the plain below. Midway between these 
buildings was the enemy's field-battery, and his infantry 
forces were disposed on either side to support it. This 
reconnoissance was verified by Captain Mason and Colonel 
Duncan, on the afternoon of the same day. The result 
indicated that the centre was the weak point of the 
enemy's position, and that his flanks were the strong 
points, his left flank being the stronger. 

" As the enemy's system of defence was connected with 
the hill and castle of Chapultepec, and as my operations 
were limited to a specific object, it became necessary to 
isolate the work to be accomplished from the castle of 
Chapultepec and its immediate defences. To eflect this 
this object, the following dispositions were ordered : Colonel 



514 JAMES KNOX POLK. 

Garland's brigade to take position on the right, strengthened 
by two pieces of Captain Drum's battery, to look to El 
Molino del Key as well as any support of this position 
from Chapultepec ; and also within sustaining distance of 
the assaulting party and the battering guns, which, under 
Captain Huger, were placed on the ridge, five or six 
hundred yards from El Molino del Key, to batter and 
loosen this position from Chapultepec. An assaulting party 
of five hundred picked men and officers, under command 
of Brevet Major George Wright, 8th mfantry, was also 
posted on the ridge to the left of the battering guns to 
force the enemy's centre. The 2d (Clark's) brigade, the 
command of which devolved on Colonel M'Intosh, Colonel 
Clark being sick, with Duncan's battery, was to take post 
still farther up the ridge, opposite the enemy's right, to 
look to our left flank, to sustain the assaulting column, if 
necessary, or to discomfit the enemy, the ground being 
favourable, as circumstances might require. Cadwalader's 
brigade was held in reserve, m a position on the ridge, 
between the battering guns and M'Intosh's brigade, and in 
easy support of either. The cavalry, under Major Sumner, 
to envelop our extreme left, and be governed by circum- 
stances — to repel or attack, as the commander's judgment 
might suggest. The troops to be put in position under 
cover of the night, and the work to begin as soon as the 
heavy material could be properly directed. Colonel Duncan 
was charged with the general disposition of the artillery. 

"Accordingly, at three o'clock on the morning of the 
8th, the several columns were put in motion, on as many- 
different routes ; and, when the gray of the morning enabled 
them to be seen, they were as accurately in position as if 
posted in midday for review. The early dawn was the 
moment appointed for the attack, which was announced to 
our troops by the opening of Huger's guns on El Molino 
del Rey, upon which they continued to play actively, until 



JAMES KNOX POLK. 515 

this point of the enemy's line became sensibly shaken, 
when the assaulting party, commanded by Wright, and 
guided by that accomplished officer, Captain Mason, of the 
engineers, assisted by Lieutenant Foster, dashed gallantly 
forward to the assault. Unshaken by the galling fire of 
musketry and canister that was showered upon them, on 
they rushed, driving infantry and artillerymen at the point 
of the bayonet. The enemy's field-battery was taken, and 
his own guns were trailed upon his retreating masses; 
before, however, they could be discharged, perceiving that 
he had been dispossessed of this strong position by com- 
paratively a handful of men, he made a desperate effort to 
regain it. Accordingly his retiring forces rallied and 
formed with this object. Aided by the infantry, which 
covered the house tops (within reach of which the battery 
had been moved during the night), the enemy's whole line 
opened upon the assaulting party a terrific fire of musketry, 
which struck dov/n eleven out of the fourteen officers that 
composed the command, and non-commissioned officers and 
men in proportion ; including, amongst the officers, Brevet 
Major Wright, the commander; Captain Mason and Lieu- 
tenant Foster, engineers : all severely wounded. 

" This severe shock staggered, for a moment, that gallant 
band. The light battalion, held to cover Huger's battery, 
under Captain E. Kirby Smith (Lieutenant-Colonel Smith 
being sick), and the right wing of Cadwalader's brigade, 
were promptly ordered forward to support, which order 
was executed in the most gallant style; the enemy was 
again routed, and this point of his line carried, and fully 
possessed by our troops. In the mean time, Garland's 
(1st) brigade, ably sustained by Captain Drum's artillery, 
assaulted the enemy's left, and, after an obstinate and 
very severe contest, drove him from this apparently im- 
pregnable position, immediately under the guns of the 
castle of Chapultepec. Drum's section, and the battering 
GO 



516 JAMES KNOX POLK. 

guns under Captain Huger, advanced to the enemy's 
position, and the captured guns of the enemy were now 
opened on his retreating forces, on which they continued 
to fire until beyond their reach. 

"While this work was in progress of accomplishment, 
by our centre and right, our troops on the left were not 
idle. Duncan's battery opened on the right of the enemy's 
line, up to this time engaged ; and the 2d brigade, under 
Colonel M'Intosh, was now ordered to assault the extreme 
right of the enemy's line. The direction of this brigade 
soon caused it to mask Duncan's battery — the fire of which, 
for the moment, was discontinued — and the brigade moved 
steadily on to the assault of Casa Mata, which, instead of 
an ordinary field intrenchment, as was supposed, proved to 
be a strong stone citadel, surrounded with bastioned 
intrenchments and impassable ditches — an old Spanish 
work, recently repaired and enlarged. When within easy 
musket range, the enemy opened a most deadly fire upon 
our advancing troops, which was kept up, without intermis- 
sion, until our gallant men reached the very slope of the 
parapet of the work that surrounded the citadel. By this 
time a large proportion of the command was either killed 
or wounded, amongst whom were the three senior officers 
present— Brevet Colonel M'Intosh, Brevet Lieutenant- 
Colonel Scott, of the 5th infantry, and Major Waite, 8th 
infantry; the second killed, and the first and last des- 
perately wounded. Still, the fire from the citadel was 
unabated. In this crisis of the attack, the command was, 
momentarily, thrown into disorder, and fell back on the 
left of Duncan's battery, where they rallied. 

As the 2d brigade moved to the assault, a very large 
cavalry and infantry force was discovered approaching 
rapidly upon our left flank, to reinforce the enemy's right. 
As soon as Duncan's battery was masked as before men- 
tioned, supported by Andrew's voltigeurs, of Cadwalader's 



JAMES KNOX POLK. 517 

brigade, it moved promptly to the extreme left of our line, 
to check the threatened assault on this point. The enemy's 
cavalry came rapidly within canister range, when the 
whole battery opened a most effective fire, which soon 
broke the squadrons, and drove them back in disorder. 
During this fire upon the enemy's cavalry. Major Sumner's 
command moved to the front, and changed direction in 
admirable order, under a most appalling fire from the Casa 
Mata. This movement enabled his command to cross the 
ravine immediately on the left of Duncan's battery, where 
it remained, doing noble service until the close of the 
action. At the very moment the cavalry were driven 
beyond reach, our own troops drew back from before the 
Casa Mata, and enabled the guns of Duncan's battery to 
reopen upon this position ; which, after a short and well- 
directed fire, the enemy abandoned. The guns of the 
battery were now turned upon his retreating columns, and 
continued to play upon them until beyond reach. 

" He was now driven from every point of the field, and 
his strong lines, which had certainly been defended well, 
were in our possession. In fulfilment of the instructions 
of the commander-in-chief, the Casa Mata was blown up, 
and such of the captured ammunition as was useless to us, 
as well as the cannon moulds found in El Molino del Rey, 
were destroyed. After which my command, under the 
reiterated orders of the general-in-chief, returned to quarters 
at Tacubaya, with three of the enemy's four guns (the 
fourth having been spiked, was rendered unserviceable) ; 
as also a large quantity of small arms, with gun and 
musket ammunition, and exceeding eight hundred pri- 
soners, including fifty-two commissioned officers. 

" By concurrent testimony of prisoners the enemy's force 
exceeded fourteen thousand men commanded by General 
Santa Anna in person. His total loss, killed, including the 
second and third in command, (Generals Valdarez and 



518 JAMES KNOX POLK. 

Leon), wounded and prisoners, amounts to three thousand, 
exclusive of some two thousand who deserted after the 
rout. 

" My command, reinforced as before stated, only reached 
3100 men of all arms. The contest continued two hours, 
and its severity is painfully attested by our heavy loss of 
officers, non-commissioned officers, and privates, including 
in the first two classes some of the brightest ornaments of 
the service." 

This victory prepared the way for more important ones. 
The time from the 8th to the 11th was spent in careful 
reconnoissances of the defences around the capital. A de- 
scription of these we give in General Scott's own words : 

" This city (Mexico) stands on a slight swell of ground, 
near the centre of an irregular basin, and is girdled with a 
ditch in its greater extent — a navigable canal of great 
breadth and depth — very difficult to bridge in the presence 
of an enemy, and serving at once for drainage, custom- 
house purposes, and military defence; having eight en- 
trances or gates over arches — each of which we found 
defended by a system of strong works, that seemed to re- 
quire nothing but some men and guns to be impregnable. 
Outside, and within the cross-fires of those gates, we found 
to the south other obstacles, little less formidable. All the 
approaches near the city are elevated causeways, cut in 
many places (to oppose us), and flanked on both sides by 
ditches, also of unusual dimensions. The numerous cross- 
roads are flanked in like manner, having bridges at the 
intersections, recently broken. The meadows thus check- 
ered are, moreover, in many spots, underwater, or marshy; 
for, it will be remembered, we were in the midst of the wet 
season, though with less rain than usual, and we could not 
wait for the fall of the neighbouring lakes, and the conse- 
quent drainage of the wet grounds at the edge of the city." 

In order to save the hves of his men, by avoiding these 



JAMES KNOX POLK. 519 

formidable obstacles, General Scott determined on a sudden 
and secret movement to the south-west, where the defences 
were feeble. This was admirably executed, the enem}' 
mistaking a feint for the real march, until it was too late to 
retrieve themselves. 

The most important step in the new movement was the 
capture of Chapultepec, a natural and isolated mound, of 
great elevation, strongly fortified at its base. Besides a 
numerous garrison, there was stationed at this place the 
military college of the republic, containing a large number 
of sub-lieutenants and other students. The bombardment 
of this strong place was commenced on the morning of the 
12th, and continued with great activity, under the direction 
of Captain Huger, throughout the day. It was renewed on 
the following day, and kept up until eight o'clock, when 
General Scott gave signal to the divisions of Pillow and 
Quitman for a general assault. The redoubt yielded to re- 
sistless valour, and the enemy were so closely pursued as to 
be unable to fire a single mine without blowing up friend 
and foe. Then the ditch and wall of the main work were 
reached ; scaling-ladders planted, and hundreds rushed over 
among the garrison. The cannon ceased, and the dire clash- 
ing of bayonets told of mortal strife. This also ceased, and 
long, loud cheers announced that Chapultepec had fallen. 

Simultaneously with the movement on the west. General 
Quitman had approached on the east, over a causeway, with 
cuts and batteries, defended by troops without and within. 
Deep ditches flanking the causeway, made it difficult to 
cross on either side, into the adjoining meadows, and these 
again were intersected by other ditches. By skilful ma- 
noeuvring, the New York, South Carolina, and 2d Pennsyl- 
vania volunteers, with portions of Quitman's storming 
parties, crossed the meadows in front, under a heavy fire, 
and entered the outer enclosure of Chapultepec, in time to 
join in the final assault from the west. 



520 JAMES KNOX POLK. 

In the commencement of this brilliant affair, General 
Worth had been stationed in rear of the castle, to act as 
circumstances might require. During the attack, one bri- 
gade had been withdrawn by Pillow, to assist his move- 
ments ; and on observing a large party of the enemy outside 
the works, General Scott ordered him to turn Chapul- 
tepec with his division, proceeding cautiously by the road 
at its northern base, in order, if not met by very superior 
numbers, to threaten and attack the rear of that force. 
Worth promptly obeyed these directions, although having 
but one brigade. In turning a forest, he came up with the 
troops under Colonel Trousdale, and aided in taking a 
breastwork. Then passing Chapultepec, he attacked the 
right of the enemy's line, at the time of the general retreat 
consequent upon the capture of the castle. After this he 
entered the San Cosme road, and commenced a rapid pursuit 
of the flying enemy. At the same time Quitman was 
hurrying forward by the Belen aqueduct. 

Deeming the continuance of this pursuit highly im- 
portant, General Scott sent two brigades to assist Worth, 
and one for the same purpose to Quitman. At a junction 
of the roads they found a formidable system of defences, 
entirely abandoned. Into these Worth's troops entered, and 
commenced a street fight with the enemy, who were posted 
in gardens, at windows, and on house tops. Worth ordered 
forward the mountain howitzers of Cadwalader's brigade, 
preceded by skirmishers and pioneers, with bars and axes, 
to force doors and windows, and to burrow through walls. 
Soon the assailants were in an equality of position with the 
enemy, and by eight o'clock, p. M., had carried two batteries. 
This brought them in front of the San Cosme gate, the 
only remaining obstruction to the grand plaza fronting the 
cathedral and palace. Here, in obedience to instructions, 
Worth halted, posted guards and sentinels, and placed his 
troops under shelter for the night. 



JAMES KNOX POLK. 521 

Meanwhile, Quitman, assisted by Generals Shields and 
Smith, had passed rapidly along the other road, carried a 
battery in the face of flank and direct fires, stormed the 
Belen gate at two o'clock, and entered the city. Here he 
halted, sheltered himself as well as practicable, and waited 
for further instructions. 

At four o'clock next morning, a deputation of the city 
council waited on General Scott, to report that the army 
and federal government had fled from the city about mid- 
night, in consequence of which they demanded terms of 
capitulation. The general replied, that he would sign no 
capitulation, nor submit to any terms not self-imposed — 
such only as the honour of his army, the dignity of his 
country, and the spirit of the age demanded. 

About daylight. Worth and Quitman were ordered to 
advance slowly and cautiously toward the heart of the city, 
and occupy its commanding points. The latter officer pro- 
ceeded to the great square, planted guards, and hoisted the 
colours of the United States on the National Palace. At 
about eight o'clock, the general-in-chief, dressed in full 
uniform, accompanied by his staff", and escorted by bands 
of music, entered the city at the head of his army. Before 
noon, a fire was opened upon the Americans, from the 
corners of streets, windows, and roofs of houses, by some 
2000 convicts, liberated the night before by the flying 
government. This cov/ardly war lasted more than twenty- 
four hours, notwithstanding all the exertions of the muni- 
cipal authorities, and was not put down until the army had 
lost many men killed and wounded, including several 
officers. General Quitman was appointed military governor 
of the city, and Captain Naylor superintendent of the Na- 
tional Palace. The former returning soon after to the 
United States, was succeeded by General Smith. 

Having thus, after a rapid and splendid campaign, ob- 
tained possession of the Mexican capital, General Scott pro- 



522 JAMES KNOX POLK. 

claimed martial law, and levied a contribution upon the 
inhabitants. 

In the mean time numerous sanguinary conflicts had oc- 
curred upon the road between Vera Cruz and the capital, 
between the guerilla bands and the regiments w^iich were 
marching to join General Scott. Early in May, a party of 
infantry encountered the guerillas at the National Bridge, 
and defeated them. Late in the same month. Captain 
Walker, with 800 men, while escorting a wagon train, was 
attacked by the guerillas, who were, however, repulsed with 
loss. Early in June, another very valuable train was 
attacked, and although the assailants were forced to retire, 
they succeeded in carrying off 28 wagons, 200 pack mules, 
and a large amount of specie. Soon afterwards, General 
Cadwalader, with 1000 men, was attacked at the National 
Bridge by a large force of Mexicans. A furious action 
ensued. The Mexicans lost about 100 men, and then 
retreated. The loss of the Americans was nearly as great. 
Cadwalader passed the bridge and proceeded towards Gene- 
ral Scott's army. Other conflicts occurred, in which the 
Mexican guerillas were the assailants, but though they did 
much injury to the invaders, they were invariably repulsed 
with loss. 

In July, General Pierce left Vera Cruz to join Scott's 
army, having with him 2500 men, 150 wagons, 700 mules, 
and $1,000,000 in specie. At the National Bridge, he was 
attacked by 1400 Mexicans, and a furious action ensued. 
The Mexicans were defeated. Their loss was about 150 
men — that of the Americans was about thirty. After re- 
turning to Vera Cruz for artillery and reinforcements, the 
general marched forward and reached Puebla on the 6 th of 
August. For some months the guerillas, under the able 
direction of Father Jarauta, kept the region between Vera 
Cruz and Puebla in continual alarm. All attempts to cap- 
ture the warlike priest were ineffectual. 



JAMES KNOX POLK. 523 

On the same day that Chapultepec was carried (Septem- 
ber 13th), the governor of Puebla, Colonel Childs, was fired 
upon in the castle of San Jose, from several of the streets 
of the city. The attack ceased on the 14th, but was re- 
newed at night, and continued without intermission for 
twenty-eight days. The enemy completely surrounded the 
city, cutting off all supplies, and endeavouring to change 
the course of the water stream. On the 2 2d, Santa Anna 
arrived with large reinforcements, who, on the 25th, sum- 
moned the garrison to surrender. On receiving a refusal, 
he added a heavy bombardment to the already large fire 
upon the fortress, and poured into it red-hot shells, mus- 
ketry, and cannon shot, until the 2d of October. On that 
day a sortie from the garrison destroyed a barricade of one 
hundred and fifty cotton bags ; and soon after Santa Anna's 
plans were entirely deranged by a revolt of his troops. The 
siege, however, continued until October 12th, when Gene- 
ral Lane joined the gallant Childs with large reinforce- 
ments. 

This officer, in marching from Vera Cruz to Puebla, had 
overtaken a portion of Santa Anna's forces, in their retreat 
from the latter place. The first intimation of danger was 
from a party of guerillas, who were attacked near the San 
Juan river, and defeated. A small cavalry force was after- 
wards routed, and pursued until Lane had arrived near 
Huamantla. Here he received information that Santa 
Anna was there with four thousand men and six pieces of 
artillery. Leaving his train packed at the hacienda of 
Tamaris, he pushed forward for the city, having Captain 
Walker's mounted riflemen in advance. On nearing the 
place, Walker was sent forward, and on observing a num- 
ber of horsemen crossing his path in differei^t directions, he 
ordered a gallop, and entered the city. Finding about five 
hundred of the enemy drawn up in the plaza, he ordered a 
charge, when a hand to hand conflict took place^ which 
61 



524 JAMES KNOX POLK. 

terminated in the defeat of the Mexicans. They lost two 
pieces of artillery, and were driven to a considerable dis- 
tance; but during the struggle the gallant Walker was 
mortally wounded, and in a little time expired. The 
American infantry arriving soon after completed the 
victory. 

After leaving a sufficient garrison at Puebla, General 
Lane pushed forward for Perote ; and receiving information 
on the 18th, that General Rea was in command of a con- 
siderable force of the enemy at Atlisco, about thirty miles 
distant, he moved next morning for that place. When 
near Santa Isabella, he engaged a party of lancers, and a 
running fight commenced for four miles, when the main 
body of the enemy was observed on a side hill, behind 
thick chaparral. A fierce conflict then ensued, the men 
fighting on foot, hand to hand, until night. The Mexicans 
then retired to Atlisco. 

Deeming it imprudent to enter an unknown city at night, 
in the face of the enemy. General Lane halted his men on 
a neighbouring hill and commenced a bombardment. The 
moon was beaming in her fullest lustre, and every object 
was plainly visible in her softening light. A bombardment 
at such a time must have been a splendid sight. The 
Americans served their guns with the utmost rapidity ; and 
with the sullen roar of artillery was mingled the crashing 
of walls and roofs when struck by the shells. The guns 
being pointed to the most thickly settled parts of the town, 
the sufferings of the population were great. 

After firing three-quarters of an hour, all resistance on 
the part of the Mexicans ceased, and the commands of 
Colonel Brough and Major Lally advanced cautiously into 
the town. On entering, General Lane was waited upon by 
the city council, desiring that the place might be spared. 
Next morning the Americans disposed of what arras and 
ammunition they found, and returned to Puebla. Their 



JAMES KNOX POLK. 525 

loss was one killed, and one wounded ; that of the enemy 
five hundred and nineteen, of whom two hundred and 
nineteen were killed. 

About the middle of October, the naval forces of the 
United States captured Guaymas and Mazatlan. 

On the 8th of February, Brigadier-General Price march- 
ed from New Mexico, where for some time he had been 
making civil and military arrangements for insuring tran- 
quillity, and proceeded towards El Paso. After enduring 
great hardships upon the road, he reached this place on the 
23d, and united himself with a reinforcement previously 
ordered there, for the purpose of enabling him to act against 
the state of Chihuahua. Here he received such informor 
tion respecting the force and designs of the enemy, as in- 
duced him to abandon his original plan of operations, and 
by mounting his best troops upon horses, to advance by 
forced marches, and strike a blow at the enemy before they 
could be aware of it. Accordingly, on the night of the 
26th, Major Walker was despatched with three companies, 
to occupy the town of Carrizal, ninety miles from El Paso, 
and commanding all the passes leading to Chihuahua. He 
took possession of the place without meeting any of the 
enemy, and succeeded in intercepting all their communi- 
tion. 

On the night of the 6th, when within sixty miles of Chi- 
huahua, a small party of the advance came unexpectcdl}' 
upon one of the enemy's pickets, which after some unim- 
portant manoeuvring, succeeded in escaping. This caused 
the American general to push forward his advance, so thai 
on the following morning he arrived within six miles of the 
Sacramento. Here he was met by a flag of truce from the 
Mexican general, who protested against the advance of the 
troops upon Chihuahua, on the ground, that instructions 
had been received from the Mexican government, suspend- 
ing hostilities, as a treaty of peace had been concluded by 



526 JAMES KNOX POLK. 

commissioners of both governments. This information was 
subsequently confirmed, but disregarding it, General Price 
continued to advance upon the city of Chihuahua, which 
was soon after abandoned by the Mexican army. 

Having anticipated this latter circumstance. Price had, 
on the previous day, detached Beall's dragoons, so that by 
a forced march over the mountains during the night, he 
might cut off the retreat. On the following morning 
[March 8th], he followed with a portion of his troops, and 
came up with the Mexicans early on the following morning. 
They were strongly posted at the town of Santa Cruz de 
Rosales, sixty miles from Chihuahua. Here General Price 
received from the commandant. General Trias, positive 
assurance of the conclusion of a peace, of which the 
Mexican officer expected official notification in three days. 
Still the American general deemed it consistent with the 
honour of his nation to besiege the place, which he did for 
several days. On the morning of the 16th, he commenced 
a heavy bombardment, attended with heavy loss of life and 
property to the enemy, and followed by partial assaults 
upon the works. So great was the effi^ct, that shortly 
after sunset General Trias surrendered. Besides forty- 
two officers, and about six hundred privates, eleven cannon, 
nine wall-pieces, and five hundred and seventy-seven stand 
of arms, fell into the hands of the Americans. Price's loss 
was one lieutenant, two corporals, and one private killed, 
and nineteen privates wounded ; the Mexican loss was 
several hundred. 

The negotiations for peace between the two republics 
were at length successful. On the 2d of February, 1848, 
the treaty was signed at Guadalupe Hidalgo, between 
Nicholas P. Trist, commissioner on the part of the United 
States, and Senors Luis G. Cuevas, Bernardo Custo, and 
Miguel Atristain, commissioners on the part of Mexico. 
This instrument provided for the evacuation of Mexico by 



JAMES KNOX POLK. 527 

the American forces, the release of prisoners, the cession of 
Alta California and New Mexico to the United States, in 
consideration of $15,000,000, and the recognition of the Rio 
Grande as the western boundary of Texas, and for other 
matters of less importance. The treaty was modified and 
approved by the government of the United States, and then 
ratified by the Mexican government. 

Immediate preparations were made for the evacuation of 
Mexico by the American forces. General Scott having 
been suspended from command on account of some difh- 
culties with his officers, Major-General Butler had been 
appointed to succeed him. The latter superintended the 
evacuation of the conquered country. The greater part of 
the army reached New Orleans by the middle of June, 
1848. 

The results of the Mexican war may be briefly summed 
up as follows : — The national debt of the United States was 
increased over a hundred millions of dollars ; and the lives 
of a large number of gallant men were sacrificed. But a 
vast territory of immense value was acquired, the abiHty 
of the republic to carry on successfully an offensive war 
fully vindicated, and the general reputation and influence 
of the country abroad were greatly extended. 

The administration had an arduous task during the 
progress of the war. It was imj)Ossible to give general 
satisfaction where opinions were so widely diverse. During 
a portion of the contest, the Whig opposition had a 
majority in the lower house of Congress, and its eflbrts 
tended to embarrass the administration. Supplies were 
voted with reluctance, and the whole conduct of the war 
was denounced as imbecile. Still the Democratic party 
rallied strongly to the support of the president. 

The Oregon question, which had threatened to excite a 
war between Great Britain and the United States, was 
settled by treaty, in 184G, the 49th parallel of latitude 



528 JAMES KNOX POLK. 

being agreed upon as a boundary line. This adjust- 
ment was a cause of congratulation on both sides of the 
Atlantic. 

The measures of the Democratic party were fully carried 
out by President Polk. The tariff was considerably 
reduced, ad valorem being substituted for specific duties. 
The sub-treasury and the warehousing system were estab- 
lished. A territorial government was granted to Oregon — 
a proviso being appended that slavery should not be per- 
mitted to exist in that region. The application of this 
proviso — known as the Wilmot proviso — to other terri- 
tories was afterwards a source of great excitement in the 
Union. 

The territory of Alta California, which had been acquired 
by the United States by the treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo, 
was soon shown to be a region of immense wealth. 

Some mines of different metals had long been known to 
exist in California, and it had been conjectured that much 
mineral and metallic wealth would be discovered among its 
mountains. But few had any idea of the immense amount 
of the precious metals which slumbered in the gulches and 
streams of the Sierra Nevada. At length, accident de- 
veloped what had so long been hidden. 

The territory, while in the possession of Mexico, was in 
a neglected and unprofitable condition. The missions esta- 
blished by the Jesuits were the principal settlements, and 
converted Indians its only civilized inhabitants. With a 
view of inducing Mexican citizens to emigrate to the terri- 
tory, the government exerted itself to destroy the power of 
the missions, and granted a certain quantity of land to 
each emigrant. Captain Sutter, by birth an adventurer, 
who had served as a lieutenant in the Swiss corps of Charles 
X., emigrated to California, and received a grant of land 
sixty miles in length by sixteen in width. The whole of 
this vast estate was overgrown with tall rank grass and a 



JAMES KNOX POLK. 529 

few oaks or pines. It was situated on the borders of the 
Rio Americano, above the confluence of the Sacramento and 
San Joachim. Sutter conciliated the Indians, employed 
them to labour for him, built a strong fort, and, by extra- 
ordinary energy, made his estate into a principality. 

In September, 1847, he erected a watermill, in a spot 
more than 1000 feet above the level of the lower valley. 
His friend, Mr. Marshall, was engaged in superintending an 
alteration in it; and Captain Sutter was sitting one after- 
noon in his own room writing. Suddenly, Marshall rushed 
in, with such excitement in his face, that his friend con- 
fesses to have cast an anxious eye at his rifle. His sudden 
appearance was sufficiently curious ; but Sutter thought him 
mad, when he cried out that he had made a discovery 
which would pour into their coffers millions and millions 
of dollars, with little labour. " I frankly own," he says, 
" that when I heard this, I thought something had touched 
Marshall's brain, when suddenly all my misgivings were 
put an end to, by his flinging on the table a handful of 
scales of pure, virgin gold ; I was fairly thunderstruck." 
It was explained that, while widening the channel, that 
had been made too narrow to allow the mill-wheel to work 
properly, a mass of sand and gravel was thrown up by the 
excavators. Glittering in this, Mr. Marshall noticed what 
he thought to be an opal — a clear, transparent stone, com- 
mon in California. This was a scale of pure gold ; and the 
first idea of the discoverer was, that some Indian tribe or 
ancient possessors of the land had buried a treasure. Ex- 
amination, however, showed the whole soil to teem with 
the precious metal ; and then mounting a horse, he rode 
down to carry the intelligence to his partner. To none but 
him did he tell the story of his discovery, and they too 
agreed to maintain secret the rich reward. Proceeding to- 
gether to the spot, they picked up a quantity of the scales; 
and, with nothing but a small knife. Captain Sutter extracted 



530 JAMES KNOX POLK. 

from a little hollow in the rock a solid mass of gold, weigh- 
ing an ounce and a half But the attempt to conceal this 
valuable revelation was not successful. An artful Ken- 
tuckian labourer, observing the eager looks of the two 
searchers, followed and imitated them, picking up several 
flakes of gold. Gradually the report spread, and as the 
would-be monopolists returned tow^ards the mill, a crowd 
met them, holding out flakes of gold, and shouting with 
joy. Mr. Marshall sought to laugh them out of the idea, 
and pretended the metal was of little value ; but an Indian, 
who had long worked elsewhere in a mine of the costly 
metal, cried, "Oro! oro!" and "Gold! gold!" was shouted 
in a lively chorus, by the delighted multitude. 

The rumour was spread abroad, and the people of San 
Francisco began to leave the town and swarm to the " dig- 
gings." A large body of Mormon emigrants had just 
entered Alta California, through the south pass of the 
Rocky Mountains ; they immediately encamped near Sut- 
ter's Mill, and, within a few days, more than 1200 men 
were at work, with buckets, baskets, shovels, spades, and 
sheets of canvass, seeking for gold in the sand of the south 
fork of the Rio de los Americanos. The first plan was to 
spread the sand on canvass, and blow away, with a reed, 
all but the gold. In the first impulse of a selfish heart, the 
discoverer sought to monopolize his knowledge ; but as the 
dawn of every day revealed new stores of the metal, this 
feeling died away, for the wealth of the region seemed so 
great, that the cupidity of the world could not exhaust it. 

Perhaps, in no other country, at any period of its history, 
has so sudden and wonderful a revolution occurred as that 
which followed the discovery of the gold on the American 
fork of the Sacramento. The news reached the states, and 
immediately attracted several currents of emigration, as 
well over the Rocky Mountains as by the sea. Ceaseless 
arrivals from all quarters of the globe swelled the popula- 



JAMES KNOX POLK. 531 

tion. The few residents who remained in the coast towns 
made ample fortunes, by levying exorbitant smns for the 
entertainment and supply of travellers who came to the 
port. Vessels in the harbours were deserted; the harvest 
was at first unreaped, and the industry of the country sud- 
denly stopped, as though struck by universal paralysis, 
while the flood of population poured into the valley of the 
Sacramento. It was ascertained that the gold region was 
about 600 miles in length, and between 100 and 150 in 
width. 

Along the borders of the rivers, and in the ravines of the 
wild hilly country, camps were formed, and tents, bowers, 
mud huts, and rudely-erected sheds multiplied and covered 
the ground. Still, hundreds slept in the open air, and 
these hundreds swelled to thousands as each mail carried 
to the United States more glowing accounts of the gold. 

The waters lying between the coast of California and the 
Isthmus, and further round Cape Horn to New York, were 
never before converted into such a crowded highway. Ves- 
sels were constantly passing to and fro, and all of them were 
peopled either by sanguine adventurers, with the hot fever 
of desire upon them, or disappointed men, who were re- 
turning remorsefully to their homes, moralizing in philo- 
sophic vein over the theory of the far-famed fable — that 
industry alone is the genius that possesses the power to 
turn all things to gold. 

Within eighteen months, 100,000 men arrived in Alta 
California, from the United States, and many more from 
other parts of the world. The magnetic power of mammon 
was never so palpable. The towns on the coast were in a 
continual bustle. The population of San Francisco in- 
creased with a rapidity beyond all precedent. 

The heterogenous society, suddenly formed in California, 
was in a state of confusion. Quarrels, outrages, and crimes 
became frequent, and Lynch law alone was found to act as 
02 



532 JAMES KNOX POLK. 

a preventive. Certain rights of property were recognised 
among the miners, the necessity of them being evident to 
every one. The old Mexican laws were continued in force 
in the towns, where order was more generally preserved. 
To add to the attractions of the country, mines of silver, 
quicksilver, and various minerals, were discovered. 

The necessity of a more regular and permanent form of 
government being given to the territory, became apparent 
to the authorities ; and Governor Riley issued a proclama- 
tion, calling a convention of delegates to Monterey, to 
frame a state constitution. By one of the provisions of 
this instrument, slavery was for ever excluded from Califor- 
nia, and this it was which created the difficulties attending 
the admission of the state into the Union. 

The influence of the gold discovery upon Oregon and 
the neighbouring territory was wonderful. The fertile soil 
of Oregon, its great rivers and fine harbours, attracted the 
attention of emigrants, and such has been the influx, that 
several important towns have been established, and are now 
in a flourishing condition. The sudden rise of Cahfornia 
exercised an influence upon the vast region which lies be- 
tween the most western states and the Rocky Mountains. 
The territory of Utah, in the vicinity of the lake of the 
same name, contains the city of the persecuted Mormons, 
and will soon be in a condition for admission into the Union. 
The Mormon city serves as a stopping-place for the over- 
land emigrants to California and Oregon. 

In November, 1848, the presidential election occurred. 
The candidates of the administration party were General 
Lewis Cass, of Michigan, for president, and General Wil- 
liam 0. Butler, of Kentucky, for vice-president. The 
Whigs brought forward as candidates for the same offices, 
General Zachary Taylor, of Louisiana, and Millard Fillmore, 
of New York. A Northern anti-slavery party nominated 
Martin Van Buren and Charles F. Adams for the high 



JAMES KNOX POLK. 



533 



national offices, and they obtained a heavy vote. General 
Taylor and Millard Fillmore, were, however, successful. 

Mr. Polk retired from office on the 3d of March, 1849. 
He was then in rather feeble health. Having purchased a 
beautiful residence in the heart of Nashville, he determined 
to pass the remainder of his days in the quiet of private 
life. But he was not spared very long. In June, 1849, 
the cholera desolated many parts of the valley of the Mis- 
sissippi. Mr. Polk was seized with the disease, which 
terminated his life on the 15th of that month, in the fifty- 
fourth year of his age. 

Mr. Polk was of the ordinary stature, and rather thin. 
He had an intellectual forehead, sparkling blue eyes, and 
an earnest expression of countenance. He was simple in 
his manners, and his private life was blameless. Firm and 
decided in his opinions, fluent in their advocacy both with 
tongue and pen, he exerted a considerable influence upon 
the politics of the nation, and has left his name connected 
with some of the most momentous measures ever adopted 
by the government. 




BATTLE OF SAN OABKIEL. 



ZACHARY TAYLOR. 



The twelfth president of the United States was one who, 
previous to his election to the chief magistracy, had never 
held a civil office. Military operations had been the study 
of his youth and of his riper years ; and he rose to fame and 
power, by the ever mighty influence of glorious achieve- 
ments in the field. Still, the stafi* of office was not confided 
to him merely as a war-worn veteran's reward, but wdth the 
hope that the qualities the general had displayed through 
many trying scenes, would work beneficially amid the cor- 
ruptions of politics at Washington. 

The ancestors of General Taylor emigrated from Eng- 
land nearly two centuries ago, and settled in the eastern 
part of Virginia. His father, Richard Taylor, was born in 
that state, where he resided until about 1790. Zachary 
was his second son, and was born in November, 1784, in 
Orange county, Virginia; he is therefore a native of the 
same state which gave birth to Washington, Jefferson, 
Madison, Harrison, and many other illustrious Americans. 
Besides Zachary, his father had four sons, Hancock, George, 
William, and Joseph, and three daughters, Elizabeth, Sarah, 
and Emily. 

Richard Taylor seems to have possessed a full share of 
the restless spirit of active adventure which distinguished 
the first settlers of America. Accordingly, in a little while 
after Boone had explored Kentucky, we find him journey- 
ing to that wilderness. Here he was not only unappalled 

(534) 



ZACHARY TAYLOR. 537 

by the horrors of a country called by the natives the dark 
and bloody ground, and by his hair-breadth escapes from 
the Indians, but he actually formed the design of penetra- 
ting to New Orleans on foot. This he accomplished alone, 
through the forests and wilderness stretching along the 
Mississippi, and returned by ship to Virginia. When the 
revolution broke out, the courage and zeal which he had 
manifested in resisting the encroachments of the mother 
country, caused him to receive an appointment as colonel 
in the Continental army, the duties of which office he per- 
formed in a manner that fulfilled the high hopes which had 
been entertained of him. He fought in several of the most 
important battles of the north, and among others, with 
Washington at Trenton. At the close of the war he retired 
to his farm in Virginia, where he remained until about the 
year 1790, when he emigrated with his family to Kentucky. 
In this journey he was accompanied by Colonels Croghan 
and Bullitt, both of which names became afterwards famous 
in the annals of their state. They settled upon a spot''* 
noted for the long and peculiarly bloody wars of the Indians, 
and these brave men soon found an ample field in which to 
display their courage and hardihood. In the burnings and 
scalpings which happened almost weekly. Colonel Taylor 
so distinguished himself that he was soon looked upon as 
the champion of the white settlers, and the bulwark of 
their village. After a long time the attacks of the savages 
became less frequent, and the population had shaken off 
their fear at the Indian name, and began to assume the 
appearance of a regular community. Still the usefulness 
of Colonel Taylor did not cease with the causes which had 
drawn it forth. He became as distinguished a citizen as 

* The colonel's farm adjoined that of Colonel Croghan's father, well known 
as Locust Grove ; and the warmest friendship existed between the two families, 
arising not only from ties of relationship, but from congenial feelings and 
habite. 



boo ZACHARY TAYI/)R. 

he had formerly been a soldier, and was intrusted with the 
duties of several very important and responsible stations. 
He was one of the framers of the constitution of Kentucky ; 
represented Jefferson county and Louisville city for many 
years in both branches of the state legislature, and w^as a 
member of the electoral colleges which voted for Jefferson, 
Madison, Monroe, and Clay. 

Such are a few points in the history of a man w^hose 
name will ever be dear to the American people, as the 
father of the conqueror of Mexico. All allow him to have 
been of unflinching perseverance, indomitable courage, and 
zeal and ability to perform the duties of the various offices 
and stations which he was called to fill. 

Under the parentage of such a man it is nothing singular 
that young Zachary should early have imbibed a taste for 
military life. We are told that such was the case ; and the 
common occurrences which daily surrounded him tended to 
foster this feeling. His nursery tales w^ere stories of Indian 
butchery which had but recently been perpetrated upon 
the neighbours of his parents ; and as he grew larger, he 
often heard the shriek of the maiden and innocent, the 
sharp crack of the rifle that announced their death, and 
then the fierce conflict between the ftither and his savage 
foe. He learned to barricade his own door, and spend the 
night in watchful intensity, while looking out upon nothing 
but gloomy forests, and some burning cottage fur in the 
distance. 

At the age of six years Zachary was placed at school, 
under the direction of a Mr. Ayers. Even here he was in 
continual danger of the tomahawk, and many of the larger 
scholars were obliged to go armed. While here, young 
Zachary became distinguished among his companions for 
his activity, decision and bluntness of character, modesty 
of demeanour, and general intelligence. These are shining 
quahties in a school-boy, and he soon become the acknow- 



ZACHARY TAYLOR. 539 

ledged and general favourite of a large portion of liis com- 
rades. From a child, his mind possessed a keen relish for 
military narratives, and in youth he began to long for an 
opportunity to display himself in the field. There still 
remain of him many anecdotes, all tending to illustrate his 
fondness for activity and adventure. 

The schoolmaster of General Taylor is still living in the 
town of Preston, near Norwich, Connecticut, where he was 
born. Though more than seventy years of age, he takes 
great pleasure in listening to the achievements of his pupil, 
and in recounting anecdotes of him when a school-boy. He 
represents him to have been an excellent scholar, possessing 
an active and inquisitive mind, studious in his habits, though 
of sanguine temperament, quick of apprehension, and pro- 
mising fair for a career of usefulness in life. He had mental 
qualities of thoughtfulness, judgment, shrewdness, and 
stability, not often found united in youth. But a peculiar 
trait of his character, and one not often connected with a 
sanguine temperament, was firmness. This, united with 
the above-named qualities, is an important characteristic in 
a soldier. Upon many occasions, sudden and warm im- 
pulses, when properly directed by judgment and firmness, 
have produced grand achievements; and though a man 
may be brave to an eminent degree, yet a phlegmatic 
temperament is calculated to restrain the exercise of his 
bravery at a time when it might lead to glorious results. 

Upon leaving school, young Taylor continued the exercise 
of those sports and labours which suited the ardour of his 
temperament. He often performed feats of strength and 
difficulty which would excite the wonder and applause of 
friends, and rivalry of others. His fondness for military 
life has been mentioned, and it is related that even before 
he commenced a course of rigid tactical instruction, he 
might often be seen with his comrades practising the differ- 



540 ZACHART TAYLOR. 

ent evolutions of a company-drill, with as much gravity 
and emulation as though under orders before an enemy. 

An opportunity was not long wanting for the exercise of 
the talent thus gradually developing. The difficulties be- 
tween the United States and England, relative to interrup- 
tions of our commerce and the impressment of seamen, 
now presented so alarming an aspect, that an early rupture 
was confidently anticipated. This was an excellent oppor- 
tunity for many of the wild young spirits of the west to 
wreak their vengeance against an enemy, who, though re- 
spected in time of peace, was the object of bitter animosity 
in war. Volunteer companies were organized in every part 
of the Union, and the " citizen soldiery" became an object 
of great national importance. 

While these events were in progress, the whole country 
was electrified by the intelligence that a British armed 
vessel, the Leopard, had fired into the American frigate 
Chesapeake, killing three of her men, wounding eighteen, 
and subsequently carrying away four others of her crew. 
This increased the popular indignation against Great Britain 
as well as the spirit of determined resistance to her attacks; 

Upon reception of the news of this affair, young Taylor 
applied for a commission in the army, and was appointed 
by President Jefferson a first lieutenant in the 7th regiment 
of infantry. This step was highly pleasing to his father, 
who had been instrumental in its accomplishment. 

Meanwhile, the difficulties between the two countries 
daily increased, and in June, 1812, war was declared by 
the government of the United States. The commencement 
of the contest was disastrous for the Americans. General 
Hull surrendered the whole north-western army at Detroit, 
and exposed the frontier to the savage incursions of the 
British and Indians. But General Harrison was now 
appointed commander-in-chief in the west, a new army was 



ZACHARY TAYLOR. 541 

raised, and preparations were made to offer an effectual 
resistance to the enemy. 

Small forts were scattered around in various directions, 
and the defence of these was intrusted only to those in 
whom General Harrison had the most perfect confidence. 
One of these was a small and weak stockade fort, called, in 
honour of the commanding general. Fort Harrison. It was 
situated on the Wabash river, in Indiana, the very heart 
of the Indian country, and had for some time been threat- 
ened by the Miami and other large tribes. The selection 
of a commander for this station was a subject of consider- 
able importance, but it at length devolved upon Captain 
Taylor. In this appointment the general was no doubt 
influenced by the success of Taylor in his many previous 
skirmishes with the Indians, for which he had been 
advanced from the rank of lieutenant to that of captain. 
This was under Governor Shelby, . previous to the com- 
mencement of hostilities with Great Britain. 

Upon assuming the command of Fort Harrison, Taylor 
not only found the works in a miserable condition, but also 
that, of the small garrison of fifty men, all excepting about 
twenty were disabled by sickness. Notwithstanding these 
discouraging circumstances, he set himself earnestly to 
work in order to render the fort defensible. The principal 
defences consisted of an upper and lower block-house, and 
a fort with two bastions. These he strengthened by other 
small fortifications, and especially by judicious arrange- 
ments of his fire arms, and took every measure to supply 
his men with ample provisions of food and ammunition, and 
to inspire them with confidence in themselves. 

The first indications of an attack were manifested on 
Thursday the 3d of September. A delegation fi'om the 
Miami Indians then informed the captain that the 
" Prophet," brother of Tecumseh, was advancing with his 
party toward the fort, and that the Miamis were about to 
63 



542 ZACHARY TAYLOR. 

retire from that region. On the same evening two young 
citizens were making hay at the distance of about four 
hundred yards from the fort. Soon after retreat beating, 
four guns were heard in that direction, and the garrison 
were immediately impressed with the belief that the men 
had been surprised and murdered by the Indians. On 
account of the lateness of the hour it was not thought 
prudent to search for them then, and their non-appearance 
after a long and anxious watch convinced the captain that 
his suspicions of their fate w^ere correct. Nothing further 
transpired that night, and the next morning at eight o'clock 
a corporal with a small party was detached to investigate 
the result of the firing, if it could be done without too 
much risk of being drawn into an ambuscade. The 
corporal soon sent a messenger back to the fort, informing 
the commander that he had found the two dead bodies, 
and requesting further orders. A cart and oxen were sent 
out, and the murdered men brought to the fort. Each had 
been shot with two balls, scalped, and horribly mangled. 
They were buried within the fort. This circumstance 
caused the garrison to redouble their vigilance. Additional 
sentinels were posted, and the officers of the guard directed 
to walk the round all night, in order to prevent, if possible, 
a surprise. 

Late on the evening of the 4th, an old man named 
Joseph Lenar, with between thirty and forty Indians, 
arrived from the Prophet's town with a white flag. 
Among these were ten women, and the men were the 
chiefs from the different tribes composing the Prophet's 
party. The object of this mission, as stated by a Shawnee 
who spoke English, was to obtain another interview on the 
following morning, and to buy provisions. There could be 
no doubt, however, that their true object was to spy the 
strength of the garrison, and throw them off their guard. 
Accordingly, after retreat beating, the men's arms were 



ZACHARY TAYLOR. 543 

examined, and their cartridges completed to sixteen rounds 
per man. So miserable, however, was the health of the 
soldiers, that the captain despaired of a successful defence 
in case of an attack from a large force — even his small 
guard of six privates and two non-commissioned officers 
were not able to do service every day. 

Soon after the departure of the Indians the captain was 
obliged to retire to rest in consequence of debility from a 
late violent attack of fever. His sleep was short. Before 
retiring he had cautioned the guard to be vigilant, and 
take every precaution to prevent surprise, and at eleven 
o'clock he was awakened by a shot from one of the 
sentinels. He immediately arose, and ordered each man 
to his post. At this moment the orderly sergeant having 
charge of the upper block-house, called out that a body of 
Indians had fired the lower one. Under cover of the night 
they had accomplished this, unseen by the garrison, and 
they now opened a pretty active fire, which was returned 
by the Americans. The cry of fire threw the whole fort 
into confusion ; the soldiers gave up all for lost, when they 
saw the flames communicate with a quantity of whiskey in 
the block-house, and rush up in wide sheets toward the 
barracks, which made part of the fortifications. Some 
women and children who were in the fort ran among the 
garrison, imploring for succour, and filling the air wdth their 
lamentations. This, with the bowlings of hundreds of 
Indians, rendered that night-scene one sufficient to appal 
the stoutest heart. But amid all this uproar one man 
remained cool and determined, — that man was the young 
commander of the fort, and to his self-possession was owing 
the safety of the garrison. Immediately on perceiving the 
flames, he ordered water to be brought from the well in 
buckets, but in consequence of debility and the influence 
of terror upon the soldiers, these orders were but languidly 
executed. He then informed the men that their only 



544 ZACHARY TAYLOR. 

means of safety was to keep the end of the fortification 
nearest the block-house continually wet, that by so doing 
not only might the whole row of buildings be saved, but 
an opening of only eighteen or twenty feet left for the 
Indians to enter after the house was consumed, and, that 
even here their entrance might be prevented by the 
erection of a temporary breastwork. The chance of escape 
from imminent danger inspired the men with a firmness 
bordering on desperation. Under the direction of Dr. 
Clark those who were able, mounted the tojDS of the houses 
amid a shower of balls, aijd in a very short time had 
thrown off the greater part of the roof nearest to the 
burning building. This was done with the loss of but one 
man killed and two wounded. During this time two of 
the men leaped from the pickets and ran toward the 
enemy. Their cowardice was but ill rewarded, — one of 
them was killed, and the other returned before day to the 
gate, where he begged " for God's sake" to be admitted. 
Not being recognised, his attempt was supposed to be a 
stratagem of the Indians to gain admittance into the fort, 
and he was fired upon. The shot not taking effect, he ran 
round to the other bastion, where his voice was recognised, 
and he was directed by Dr. Clark to lie down close to the 
pickets behind an empty barrel. He there remained until 
daylight, when he was admitted. His arm was broken in 
a shocking manner, and he was otherwise greatly mangled. 
While a part of the garrison were thus demolishing the 
roof, the men below were using every exertion to prevent 
the destruction of the barracks. They were several times 
on fire, and extinguished only by the most active efforts. 
During the whole time, and while labouring at their breast- 
work, the men were exposed to a heavy fire from the 
Indians, as well as to a shower of arrows which rained 
around them in great quantities. Before morning the 



ZACHART TAYLOR. 545 

work was advanced to the height of a man, with the loss 
of but one soldier killed. 

The approach of daylight enabled the Americans to aim 
with more precision and success, and at six o'clock their 
fire had become so destructive as to cause the Indians to 
remove from the reach of their guns. At this disappoint- 
ment of their expected booty, the savages became furious ; 
and driving up the horses and a number of hogs belonging 
to the citizens, they shot them in front of the fort. They 
also seized all the cattle belonging to private individuals, 
amounting to sixty-five head, together with the oxen, which 
were public property. 

As the enemy continued in sight that day, the American 
commander was busily occupied in repairing the damages 
of the fort. The vacancy caused by the burning of the 
block-house was filled up by a strong row of pickets, 
obtained by demolishing the guard-house. The other de- 
fences were also strengthened, and provision made against 
a second attempt to fire the buildings. 

The Indians, however, had been so severely handled 
that they did not consider it advisable to renew the attack. 
They continued within sight until the morning of the 6th, 
when the garrison . were relieved of their presence. The 
loss of the Indians had been heavy, but as they wore very 
numerous, each dead body was carried from the field. Not- 
withstanding the apparent friendliness of the Miamis on 
the evening of the assault, there is little doubt but that 
the whole of their tribe was among the Prophet's party. 

After the attack the garrison were obliged to subsist 
upon a scanty supply of green corn, all their provisions 
having been intercepted or destroyed by the enemy. Cap- 
tain Taylor used great exertions to forward despatches to 
General Harrison, but as every road was guarded by strong 
parties of Indians, his messengers were obliged to return. 



546 ZACHARY TAYLOR. 

The following letter will cofivey some idea of the difficul- 
ties under which he laboured. 



" Fort Harrison, Sept. 13th, 1812. 

" Dear Sir : 

" I wrote to you on the 10th instant, giving you an account 
of an attack on this place, as well as my situation, which 
account I attempted to send by water; but the two men 
whom I despatched in a canoe after night found the river 
so well guarded that they were obliged to return. The 
Indians had built a fire on the bank of the river a short 
distance below the garrison, which gave them an oppor- 
tunity of seeing any craft that might attempt to pass, and 
were waiting with a canoe ready to intercept it. I expect 
the fort as well as the road to Vincennes is as well or better 
watched than the river. But my situation compels me to 
make one other attempt by land, and my orderly sergeant 
and one other man ^set out to-night, with strict orders to 
avoid the road in the day-time, and depend entirely on the 
woods, although neither of them have ever been in Vin- 
cennes. by land, nor do they know anything of the country ; 
but I am in hopes that they will reach you in safety. I 
send them with great reluctance, from their ignorance 
of the woods. I think it very probable there is a large 
party of Indians waylaying the road between this and Vin- 
cennes, likely about the Narrows, for the purpose of inter- 
cepting any party that may be coming to this place, as the 
cattle they got here will supply them plentifully with pro- 
visions for some time to come. 

" Please, &c., 

"Z. Taylor." 
" His excellency. Governor Harrison." 

At the time of the writing of this letter Colonel Russell 
was within fifteen miles of Fort Harrison, with a reinforce- 



ZACHARY TAYLOR. - 547 

ment of 600 mounted rcangers, and 500 infantry. He 
arrived on the IGth, to the utter surprise of Captain 
Taylor, who had not heard of even his approach. Some 
time after the garrison was further reinforced by about 
4000 men under Major-General Hopkins. 

On the 11th of November the army left Fort Harrison 
on an expedition to the Prophet's town, w^hich they reached 
on the 19th. They destroyed the town, which consisted 
of about forty huts, and the Kickapoo village of one hun- 
dred and sixty, together with all the standing corn. They 
also reconnoitred the surrounding country, and constructed 
several works of defence. In every operation Captain 
Taylor took an efficient part, and we find him mentioned 
in the despatches of Hopkins as an ^officer who had ren- 
dered "prompt and effectual support in every instance." 

On his return from this expedition Taylor found a pack- 
age for him from the seat of government. This, on being 
opened, was discovered to contain a commission from 
President Madison, conferring on him the rank of brevet 
major, as a reward for his gallant defence of Fort Harrison, 
of which it bore the date. This is said to have been the 
first brevet ever conferred in the American army. 

Major Taylor continued actively engaged in the war of 
1812 until its close, although in consequence of his not 
being intrusted with any other separate command it is 
difficult to trace his progress. The skill and bravery, how- 
ever, which he displayed in the defence of Fort Harrison, 
inspired both his comrades and the country with confidence 
in his superior abilities as an officer ; and indeed such a 
defence under the trying difficulties of desertion, conflagra- 
tion, and a savage foe, to whose numbers his own were but 
a handful, was sufficient to establish his reputation as a 
soldier of sterling qualities. 

Early in life, General Taylor married a Virginia lady of 
a highly respectable family, distantly related to his own. 



548 ZACHARY TAYLOR. 

The union was a happy one, and was blessed with five 
children. 

Major Taylor performed an important part in the famous 
" Black Hawk War," upon the north-western frontier, in 
1831. The following anecdote is related of him, the inci- 
dents of which happened during this, period. 

Some time after Stillman's defeat by Black Hawk's band, 
Taylor, marching with a large body of volunteers and a 
handful of regulars in pursuit of the hostile Indian force, 
found himself approaching Rock river, then asserted by 
many to be the true north-western boundary of the state of 
lUinois. The volunteers, as Taylor was informed, would 
refuse to cross the stream. They were mihtia, they said, 
called out for the defence of the state, and it was unconsti- 
tutional to order them to march beyond its frontier into the 
Indian country. Taylor thereupon halted his command, 
and encamped within the acknowledged boundaries of Illi- 
nois. He would not, as the relater of the story said, budge 
an inch fur,ther without orders. He had already driven 
Black Hawk out of the state, but the question of crossing 
Rock river seems hugely to trouble his ideas of integrity 
to the constitution on one side, and military expediency on 
the other. During the night, however, orders came, either 
from General Scott or General Atkinson, for him to follow 
up Black Hawk to the last. The quietness of the regular 
colonel meanwhile had rather encouraged the mutinous 
militia to bring their proceedings to a head. A sort of 
town meeting was called upon the prairie, and Taylor in- 
vited to attend. After listening for some time very quietly 
to the proceedings, it became his turn to address the chair. 
" He had heard," he said, " with much pleasure the views 
which several speakers had expressed of the independence 
and dignity of each private American citizen. He felt that 
all gentlemen there present were his equals — in reality, he 
was persuaded that many of them would in a few years be 



ZACHARY TAYLOR. 549 

his superiors, and perhaps, in the capacity of members of 
Congress, arbiters of the fortune and reputation of humble 
servants of the repubUc hke himself He expected then to 
obey them as interpreters of the will of the people ; and 
the best proof he could give that he would obey them, was 
now to observe the orders of those w^hom the people had 
already put in the places of authority, to which many 
gentlemen around him justly aspired. In plain English, 
gentlemen and fellow-citizens, the word has been jDassed on 
to me from Washington to follow Black Hawk, and to take 
you with me as soldiers. I mean to do both. There are 
the flat boats drawn up on the shore, and here are Uncle 
Sam's men drawn up behind you on the prairie." 

Taylor, as is well known, did follow Black Hawk through 
the prairies of northern Illinois, through the wooded gorges, 
the rocky fells, the plashy rice pools, the hitherto unbroken 
wilderness of western Wisconsin. The militia-men gave 
out from day to day ; the country became impassable to 
horses, and the volunteer settlers, who had first seized arms 
merely to repel an Indian foray, refused to submit their 
backs to the necessary burdens in carrying their own sup- 
plies through the deep swamps and almost impervious 
forests. At last, the very Indians themselves, whom Taylor 
thus desperately pursued from day to day, and week to 
week, began to sink from fatigue and exhaustion: they 
were found by our men stretched beside their trails, while 
Taylor's band held out amid sufferings, in the wilderness, 
which the child of the forest himself could not endure. 
The battle of the Bad-Axe, and the rout of Black Hawk, 
by Taylor, at length terminated this arduous march. 

In 1832 Taylor was advanced to the rank of colonel. 
On the commencement of war in Florida he was ordered on 
service in that district. This contest was, as every one 
knows, what General Jackson called his own Seminole war, 
" a war of movements." It consisted almost entirely of 
64 



550 ZACHARY TAYLOR. 

pursuits and attempts to surround the Indians, which they 
were generally successful in eluding. 

Colonel Taylor, however, was more fortunate than his 
predecessors; and in December, 1837, he was able to bring 
on a general action at Okee Chobee, which is best described 
in his own very able despatch, as follows : 

Head-Quarters, First Brigade, 
Armv South of the Withlacoochee, 
Fort Gardner, Jan. 4, 1838, _ 

Sir : On the 19 th ultimo I received at this place a com- 
munication from Major-General Jessup, informing me that 
all hopes of bringing the war to a close by negotiation, 
through the interference or mediation of the Cherokee dele- 
gation, were at an end, Sam Jones, with the Mickasukies, 
having determined to fight it out to the last ; and directing 
me to proceed with the least possible delay against any 
portion of the enemy I might hear of within striking dis- 
tance, and to destroy or capture them. 

After leaving two officers and an adequate force for the 
protection of my dejDot, I marched the next morning with 
twelve days' rations (my means of transportation not 
enabling me to carry more), with the balance of my com- 
mand, consisting of Captain Munroe's company of the 4th 
artillery, total, 35 men; the 1st infantry, under the com- 
mand of Lieutenant-Colonel Davenport, 197 strong; the 
4th infantry, under the command of Lieutenant-Colonel 
Foster, 274 ; the 6th infantry, under Lieutenant-Colonel 
Thompson, 221; the Missouri volunteers, 180; Morgan's 
spies, 47; pioneers, 30; pontoneers, 13; and 70 Delaware 
Indians ; making a force, exclusive of officers, of 1032 men ; 
the greater part of the Shawnees having been detached, 
and the balance refusing to accompany me, under the pre- 
text that a number of them were sick, and the remainder 
were without moccasins. 



ZACHARY TAYLOR. 551 

I moved down the west side of the Kissimmee, in a 
south-easterly course, towards Lake Istopoga, for the follow-* 
ing reasons : First, because I knew that a portion of the 
hostiles were to be found in that direction ; second, if Ge- 
neral Jessup should f\xll in with the Mickasukies and drive 
them, they might attempt to elude him by crossing the 
Kissimmee from the east to the west side of the peninsula, 
between this and its entrance into Okee Chobee, in which 
case I might be near at hand to intercept them ; third, to 
overawe and induce such of the enemy who had been 
making propositions to give themselves up, and who ap- 
peared very slow, if not to hesitate, in complying with their 
promises on that head, to surrender at once ; and lastly, I 
deemed it advisable to erect block-houses, and a small picket 
work on the Kissimmee, for a third depot, some forty or 
fifty miles below this, and obtain *a knowledge of the inter- 
vening country, as I had no guide who could be relied on, 
and by this means open a communication with Colonel 
Smith, who was operating up the Caloosehatchee, or Sanybel 
river, under my orders. 

Late in the evening of the first day's march, I met the 
Indian chief, Jumper, with his family, and a part of his 
band, consisting of fifteen men, a part of them with families, 
and a few negroes — in all, sixty-three souls — on his way to 
give himself up, in conformity to a previous arrangement 
I had entered into with him. They were conducted by 
Captain Parks, and a few Shawnees. He (Parks) is an 
active and intelligent half-breed, who is at the head of the 
friendly Indians, both Shawnees and Delawares, and whom 
I had employed to arrange and bring in Jumper, and a*s 
many of his people as he could prevail on to come in. 
We encamped that night near the same spot; and the next 
morning, having ordered Captain Parks to join me, and take 
command of the Delawares, and having despatched Jumper 
in charge of some Shawnees to this place, and so on to Fort 



552 ZACHARY TAYLOR. 

Frazer, I continued my march, after having sent forward 
three friendly Seniinoles to'gain intelligence as to the posi- 
tion of the enemy. 

About noon on the same day, I sent forward one bat- 
talion of Gentry's regiment under command of Lieutenant- 
Colonel Price, to pick up any stragglers that might fall in 
his way ; to encamp two or three miles in advance of the 
main force ; to act with great circumspection, and to com- 
municate promptly any occurrence that might take place in 
his vicinity important for me to know. About 10 p. m., I 
received a note from the colonel, stating that the three 
Seminoles sent forward in the morning had returned ; that 
they had been at or where Alligator had encamped, twelve 
or fifteen miles in his advance ; that he (Alligator) had left 
there with a part of his family four days before, under the 
pretext of separating hi.^ relations, &c., from the Mickasu- 
kies, preparatory to his surrendering with them ; that there 
were several families remaining at the camp referred to, 
who wished to give themselves up, and would remain there 
until we took possession of them, unless they were forcibly 
carried off that night by the Mickasukies, who were en- 
camped at no great distance from them. 

In consequence of this intelligence, after directing Lieu- 
tenant-Colonel Davenport to follow me early in the morning 
with the infantry, a little after midnight I put myself at 
the head of the residue of the mounted men, joined Lieu- 
tenant-Colonel Price, proceeded on, crossing Istopoga outlet, 
and soon after daylight took possession of the encampment 
referred to, where I found the inmates, who had not been 
disturbed. They consisted of an old man and two young 
ones, and several women and children, amounting in all to 
twenty-two individuals. The old man informed me that 
Alligator was very anxious to separate his people from the 
Mickasukies, who were encamped on the opposite side of the 
Ki.'ssiinmee, distant about twenty miles, where they would 



ZACHARY TAYLOR. 553 

fight US. I sent him to AUigator, to say to him, if he was 
sincere in his professions, to meet me the next day at the 
Kissimmee, where the trail I was marching on crossed, 
and where I should halt. 

As soon as the infantry came up, I moved on to the 
place designated, which I reached late that evening, and 
where I encamped. About 11 p. m., the old Indian re- 
turned, bringing a very equivocal message from Alligator, 
whom, he stated, he had met accidentally. Also, that the 
Mickasukies were still encamped where they had been for 
some days, and where they were determined to fight us. 

I determined at once on indulging them as soon as prac- 
ticable. Accordingly, the next morning, after laying out 
a small stockade work for the protection of a future depot, 
in order to enable me to move with the greatest celerity, I 
deposited the whole of my heavy baggage, including artil- 
lery, &c., and having provisioned the command, to include 
the 26th, after leaving Captain Munroe with his company, 
the pioneer, pontoneers, with eighty-five sick and disabled 
infantry, and a portion of the friendly Indians, who alleged 
that they were unable to march further, crossed the Kis- 
simmee, taking the old Indian as a guide who had been 
captured the day before, and who accompanied us with 
great apparent reluctance in pursuit of the enemy, and 
early the next day reached Alligator's encampment, situated 
on the edge of Cabbage-tree hammock, in the midst of a 
large prairie ; from the ajipearance of which, and other 
encampments in the vicinity, and the many evidenced of 
slaughtered cattle, there must have been several hundred 
individuals. 

At another small hammock at no great distance from 
Alligator's encampment, and surrounded by a swamp, 
impassable for mounted men, the spies surprised an en- 
campment containing one old man, four young men, and 
some women and children. One of the party immediately 



554 ZACHARY TAYLOR. 

raised a white flag, when the men were taken possession 
of and brought across the swamp to the main body. I pro- 
ceeded with an interpreter to meet them. They proved to 
be Seminoles, and professed to be friendly. They stated 
that they were preparing to come in; they had just slaugh- 
tered a number of cattle, and were employed in drying and 
jerking the same. They also informed me that the Micka- 
sukies, headed by A-vi-a-ka (Sam Jones), were some ten or 
twelve miles distant, encamped in a swamp, and were pre- 
pared to fight. 

Although I placed but Httle confidence in their profes- 
sions of friendship, or their intentions of coming in, yet I 
had no time to look up their women and children, who had 
fled and concealed themselves in the swamp, or to have 
encumbered myself with them in the situation in which I 
then was. 

Accordingly, I released the old man, who promised that 
he would collect all the women and children, and take 
them in to Captain Munroe, at the Kissimmee, the next 
day. I also dismissed the old man who had acted as guide 
thus far, supplying his place with the four able warriors 
who had been captured that morning. 

These arrangements being made, I moved under their 
guidance for the camp of the Mickasukies. Between two 
and three, p. m., w^e reached a very dense cypress swamp, 
through which we were compelled to pass, and in which 
our guides informed us we might be attacked. After 
making the necessary dispositions for battle, it was ascer- 
tained that there was no enemy to oppose us. The army 
crossed over and encamped for the night, it being late. 
During the passage of the rear. Captain Parks, who was in 
advance with a few friendly Indians, fell in with two of 
the enemy's spies, between two or three miles of our camp 
— one on horseback, the other on foot — and succeeded in 
capturing the latter. He was an active young warrior, 



ZACHARY TAYLOR. 555 

armed with an excellent rifle, fifty balls in his pouch, and 
an adequate proportion of powder. This Indian confirmed 
the information which had previously been received from 
the other Indians, and in addition stated that a large body 
of the Seminoles, headed by John Cohua, Co-a-coo-chee, 
and, no doubt, Alligator, with other chiefs, were encamped 
five or six miles from us, near the Mickasukies, with a 
cypress swamp and dense hammock between them and the 
latter. 

The army moved forward at daylight the next morning, 
and, after marching five or six miles, reached the camp of 
the Seminoles on the borders of another cypress swamp, 
which must have contained several hundred, and bore evi- 
dent traces of having been abandoned in a great hurry, as 
the fires were still burning, and quantities of beef lying on 
the ground unconsumed. 

Here the troops were again disposed of in order of battle, 
but we found no enemy to oppose us, and the command 
was crossed over about 11 A. m., when we entered a large 
prairie in our front, on which two or three hundred head 
of cattle were grazing, and a number of Indian ponies. 
Here another young Indian warrior was captured, armed 
and equipped as the former. He pointed out a dense ham- 
mock on our right, about a mile distant, in which he said 
the hostiles were situated and waiting to give us battle. 

At this place the final disposition was made to attack 
them, which was in two lines ; the volunteers under Gentry, 
and Morgan's spies, to form the first line in extended order, 
who were instructed to enter the hammock, and in the 
event of being attacked and hard pressed, were to fall back 
in rear of the regular troops, out of reach of the enemy's 
fire; the second line was composed of the 4th and 6th 
infantry, who were instructed to sustain the volunteers, 
Ihe 1st infantry being held in reserve. 

Movinf? on in the direction of the hammock, after pro- 



556 ZACHARY TAYLOR. 

ceeding about a quarter of a mile, we reached the swamp 
which separated us from the enemy, three-quarters of a 
mile in breadth, being totally impassable for horse, and 
nearly so for foot, covered with a thick growth of saw-grass 
five feet high, about knee deep in mud and water, which 
extended to the left as far as the eye could reach, and to 
the right to a part of the swamp and hammock we had just 
crossed, through which ran a deep creek. At the edge of 
the swamp all the men were dismounted, and the horses 
and baggage left under a suitable guard. Captain Allen 
was detached with the two companies of mounted infantry 
to examine the swamp and hammock to the right; and, in 
case he should not find the enemy in that direction, was to 
return to the baggage, and, in the event of his hearing a 
heavy firing was immediately to join me. 

After making these arrangements, I crossed the swamp 
in the order stated. On reaching the borders of the ham- 
mock, the volunteers and spies received a heavy fire from 
the enemy, which was returned by them for a short time, 
when their gallant commander, Colonel Gentry, fell, mor- 
tally wounded. They mostly broke, and instead of forming 
in the rear of the regulars, as had been directed, they 
retired across the swamp to their baggage and horses, nor 
could they be again brought into action as a body, although 
efforts were made repeatedly by mj' stafi" to induce them 
to do so. 

The enemy, however, were promptly checked and driven 
back by the 4th and 6th infantry, which in truth might be 
said to be a moving battery. The weight of the enemy's 
fire was principally concentrated on five companies of the 
6th infantry, which not only stood firm, but continued to 
advance until their gallant commander, LieutenantrColonel 
Thompson, and his adjutant, Lieutenant Center, were 
killed ; and every officer, with one exception, as well as 
most of the non-commissioned officers, including the ser- 



ZACHART TAYLOR. 557 

geant-major and four of the orderly sergeants, killed and 
wounded of those companies; when that portion of the 
regiment retired to a short distance and were again formed, 
one of these companies having but four members left 
untouched. 

Lieutenant-Colonel Foster, with six companies, amount- 
ing in all to one hundred and sixty men, gained the ham- 
mock in good order, where he was joined by Captain Noel, 
with the two remaining companies of the 6th infantry, and 
Captain Gillam, of Gentry's volunteers, with a few addi- 
tional men, and continued to drive the enemy for a con- 
siderable time, and by a change of front separated his line, 
and continued to drive him until he reached the great lake 
Okee Chobee, which was in the rear of the enemy's position, 
and on which their encampment extended for more than a 
mile. As soon as I was informed that Captain Allen was 
advancing, I ordered the first infantry to move to the left, 
gain the enemy's right flank and turn it, which order was 
executed in the promptest manner possible ; and as soon as 
that regiment got in position, the enemy gave one fire and 
retreated, being pursued by the 1st, 4th, and 6th, and some 
of the volunteers who had joined them, until near night, 
and until these troops were nearly exhausted, and the 
enemy driven in all directions. 

The action was a severe one, and continued from half- 
past twelve, until after three p. m., a part of the time very 
close and severe. We suffered much, having twenty-six 
killed and one hundred and twelve wounded, among whom 
are some of our most valuable officers. The hostiles pro- 
bably suffered, all things considered, equally with ourselves, 
they having left ten dead on the ground, besides, doubtless, 
carrying off many more, as is customary with them when 
practicable. 

As soon as the enemy were completely broken, I turned 
my attention to taking care of the wounded, to facilitate 
65 



558 ZACHARY TAYLOR. 

their removal to my baggage, where I ordered an encamp- 
ment to be formed ; I directed Captain Taylor to cross over 
to the spot, and employ every individual whom he might 
find there in constructing a small footway across the swamp ; 
this, with great exertions, was completed in a short time 
after dark, when all the dead and wounded were carried 
over in litters made for that purpose, with one exception 
a private of the 4th infantry, who was killed and could not 
be found. 

And here, I trust I may be permitted to say that I ex- 
perienced one of the most trying scenes of my life, and he 
who could have looked on it with indifference, his nerves 
must have been very differently organized from my own; 
besides the killed, there lay one hundred and twelve 
wounded officers and soldiers, who had accompanied me one 
hundred and forty-five miles, most of the way through an 
unexplored wilderness, without guides, who had so gallantly 
beaten the enemy, under my orders, in his strongest position, 
and who had to be conveyed back through swamps and 
hammocks, from whence we set out, without any apparent 
nieans of doing so. This service, however, was encountered 
and Overcome, and they have been conveyed thus far, and 
proceeded on to Tampa Bay, on rude litters, constructed 
with the axe and knife alone, with poles and dry hides — 
the latter being found in great abundance at the encamp 
ment of the hostiles. The litters were conveyed on the 
backs of our weak and tottering horses, aided by the residue 
of the command, with more ease and comfort to the suffer- 
ers than I could have supposed, and with as much as they 
could have been in ambulances of the most improved and 
modern construction. 

The day after the battle we remained at our encamp- 
ment, occupied in taking care of the wounded, and in the 
sad office of interring the dead ; also, in preparing litters for 
the removal of the wounded, and collecting with a portion 



ZACHARY TAYLOR. 559 

of the mounted men the horses and cattle in the vicinity 
belonging to the enemy, of which we found about one 
hundred of the former, many of them saddled, and nearly 
three hundred of the latter. 

We left our encampment on the morning of the 27th 
for the Kissimmee, where I had left my heavy baggage, 
which place we reached about noon on the 28th, after leav- 
ing two companies and a few Indians to garrison the stock- 
ade, which I found nearly completed on my return, by that 
active and vigilant officer, Captain Munroe, 4th artillery. 
I left there the next morning for this place, where I arrived 
on the 31st, and sent forward the wounded next day to 
Tampa Bay, with the 4th and 6th infantry, the former to 
halt at Fort Frazer, remaining here myself with the 1st, 
in order to make preparations to take the field again as 
soon as my horses can be recruited, most of which have 
been sent to Tampa, and my supplies in a sufficient state 
of forwardness to justify the measure. 

In speaking of the command, I can only say, that so 
far as the regular troops are concerned, no one could have 
been more efficiently sustained than I have been from the 
commencement of the campaign ; and I am certain that 
they will always be willing and ready to discharge any 
duty that may be assigned them. 

To Lieutenant-Colonel Davenport, and the officers and 
soldiers of the 1st infantry, I feel under many obligations 
for the manner in which they have on all occasions, dis- 
charged their duty ; and although held in reserve and not 
brought into battle until near its close, it evinced, by its 
eagerness to engage, and the promptness and good order 
with which they entered the hammock when the order was 
given for them to do so, is the best evidence that they would 
have sustained their own characters, as well as that of the 
regiment, had it been their fortune to have been placed in 
the hottest of the battle. 



560 ZACHARY TAYLOR. 

The 4th infantry, under their gallant leader, Lieuten- 
ant^Colonel Foster, was among the fira4: to gain the ham- 
mock, and maintained this position, as, well as driving a 
portion of the enemy before him, until he arrived on the 
borders of Lake Okee Chobee, which was in the rear, and 
continued the pursuit until near night. Lieutenant-Colonel 
Foster, who was favourably noticed for his gallantry and 
good conduct in nearly all the engagements on the Niagara 
frontier during the late war with Great Britain, by his 
several commanders, as well as in the different engagements 
with the Indians in this territory, never acted a more con- 
spicuous part than in the action of the 25th ult. ; he speaks 
in the highest terms of the conduct of Brevet-Major Gra- 
ham, his second in command, as also the officers and soldiers 
of the 4th infantry, who were engaged in the action. Cap- 
tain Allen, with his two mounted companies of the 4th 
infantry, sustained his usual character for promptness and 
efficiency. Lieutenant Hooper, of the 4th regiment, was 
wounded through the arm, but continued on the field at 
tJie head of his company, until the termination of the 
battle. 

I am not sufficiently master of words to express my 
admiration of the gallantry and steadiness of the officers 
and soldiers of the 6th regiment of infantry. It was their 
fortune to bear the brunt of the battle. The report of the 
killed and wounded, which accompanies this, is more con- 
clusive evidence of their merits than anything I can say. 
After five companies of this regiment, against which the 
enemy directed the most deadly fire, were nearly cut up, 
there being only four men left uninjured in one of them, 
and every officer and orderly sergeant of those companies, 
with one exception, were either killed or wounded. Captain 
Noel, with the remaining two companies, his own company, 
^^ K," and Grossman's, " B," commanded by Second Lieuten- 
ant Woods, which was the left of the regiment, formed on 



ZACHARY TAYLOR. 5oi 

the right of the 4th infantry, entered the hammock with 
that regiment, and continued the fight and the pursuit until 
its termination. It is due to Captain Andrews and Lieu- 
tenant Walker, to say, they commanded two of the five 
companies mentioned above, and they continued to direct 
them until they were both severely wounded and carried 
from the field ; the latter received three separate balls. 

The Missouri volunteers, under the command of Colonel 
Gentry, and Morgan's spies, who formed the first line, and, 
of course, were the first engaged, acted as well, or even 
better, than troops of that description generally do ; they 
received and returned the enemy's fire, with spirit, for 
some time, when they broke and retired, with the exception 
of Captain Gillam and a few of his company, and Lieutenant 
Blakey, also with a few men, who joined the regulars, and 
acted with them, until after the close of the battle, but not 
until they had suffered severely ; the commanding officer 
of the volunteers, Colonel Gentry, being mortally wounded 
while leading on his men, and encouraging them to enter 
the hammock, and come to close quarters with the enemy ; 
his son, an interesting youth, eighteen or nineteen years 
of age, sergeant-major of the regiment, was severely 
wounded at the same moment. 

Captain Childs, Lieutenants Rogers and Flanagan, of 
Gentry's regiment, Acting Major Sconce, and Lieutenants 
Hase and Gordon, of the spies, were wounded while 
encouraging their men to a discharge of their duty. 

The volunteers and spies having, as before stated, fallen 
back to the baggage, could not again be formed and brought 
up to the hammock in anything like order; but a number 
of them crossed over individually, and aided in conveying 
the wounded across the swamp to the hammock, among 
whom were Captain Curd, and several other officers, whose 
names I do not now recollect. 

To my personal staff, consisting of First Lieutenant J. 
' 66 



562 ZACHARY TAYLOR. 

M. Hill, of the 2d, and First Lieutenant George H. Griffin, 
of the 6th infantry, the latter aid-de-camp to Major- 
General Gaines, and a volunteer in Florida, from his staff, 
I feel under the greatest obligations for the promptness 
and efficiency with which they have sustained me 
throughout the campaign, and more particularly for their 
good conduct, and the alacrity with which they aided me 
and conveyed my orders daring the action of the 25th ult. 

Captain Taylor, commissary of subsistence, who was 
ordered to join General Jessup at Tampa Bay, as chief of 
the subsistence department, and who was ordered by him to 
remain with his column until he. General Jessup, joined it, 
although no command was assigned Captain Taylor, he 
greatly exerted himself in trying to rally and bring back 
the volunteers into action, as well as discharging other 
important duties which were assigned to him during the 
action. 

Myself, as well as all who Mdtnessed the attention and 
ability displayed by Surgeon Satterlee, medical director on 
this side the peninsula, assisted by Assistant Surgeon 
M'Laren and Simpson, of the medical staff of the army, 
and Drs. Hannah and Cooke, of the Missouri volunteers, 
in ministering to the wounded, as well as their uniform 
kindness to them on all occasions, can never cease to be 
referred to by me with the most pleasing and grateful 
recollections. 

The quartermaster's department, under the direction of 
that efficient officer, Major Brant, and his assistant. 
Lieutenant Babbitt, have done everything that could be 
accomplished to throw forward from Tampa Bay, and keep 
up supplies of provisions, forage, &c., with the limited 
means at their disposal. Assistant Commissaries Lieu- 
tenants Harrison, stationed at Fort Gardner, and M'Clure, 
at Fort Fraser, have fully met my expectations in discharge 
of the various duties connected with their department, as 



ZACIIARY TAYLOR. 563 

well as those assigned them in the quartermaster's 
department. 

This column, in six weeks, penetrated one hundred and 
fifty miles into the enemy's country, opened roads, and 
constructed bridges and causeways, when necessary, on the 
greater portion of the route, established two depots, and 
the necessary defences for the same, and finally overtook 
and beat the enemy in his strongest position. The results 
of which movement and battle have been the capture of 
thirty of the hostiles, the coming in and surrendering of 
more than one hundred and fifty Indians and negroes, 
mostly the former, including the chiefs Ou-la-too-chee, 
Tus-ta-nug-gee, and other principal men, and capturing 
and driving out of the country six hundred head of cattle, 
upwards of one hundred head of horses, besides obtaining a 
thorough knowledge of the country through which we 
operated, a greater portion of which was entirely unknown, 
except to the enemy. 

Colonel Gentry died in a few hours after the battle, 
much regretted by the army, and will be, doubtless, by all 
who knew him, as his state did not contain a braver man 
or a better citizen. 

It is due to his rank and talents, as well as to his long 
and important services, that I particularly mention 
Lieutenant-Colonel A. R. Thompson, of the 6th infantry, 
who fell, in the discharge of his duty, at the head of his 
regiment. He was in feeble health, brought on by exposure 
to this climate during the past summer, refusing to leave 
the country while his regiment continued in it. Although 
he received two balls from the fire of the enemy, early in 
the action, which wounded him severely, yet he appeared 
to disregard them, and continued to give his orders with 
the same coolness that he would have done had his 
regiment been under review, or on any parade duty. 
Advancing, he received a third ball, which at once deprived 



564 ZACHARY TAYLOR. 

liim of life ; his last woixls were, " Keep steady, men, charge 
the hainmock — romcmber the regiment to which you 
belong." I had known Colonel Thompson personally only 
for a short time, and the more I knew of him the more I 
wished to know ; and had his life been spared, onr acqnaint- 
ance, no donbt. would have ripened into the closest friend- 
ship. Under such circumstances, there are few, if any, 
other than his bereaved wife, mother, and sisters, who more 
deepl}^ and sincerely lament his loss, or who will longer 
cherish his memory, than myself. 

Captiiin Van Swearingen, Lieutenant Brooke, and Lieu- 
tenant and Adjutant Center, of the same regiment, who 
fell on that day, had no superiors of their years in service, 
and, in point of chivalry, ranked among the first in the 
arm}' or nation ; besides their pure and disinterested cou- 
rage, the}' possessed other qualifications, which qualified 
them to fill the highest grades of their profession, which, 
no, doubt, they would have attained and adorned had their 
lives been spared. The two Ibrmer served with me on 
another arduous and trying campaign, and on every 
occa.^ion, whether in the camp, on the march, or on the 
field of battle, discharged their various duties to jny entire 
satisfaction. 

With greatest respect, 

I have the honour to be, sir. 
Your most obedient servant, 

Z. Taylor, Col. Com'g. 

To Brig. Gon. R. Jones. Adi. Cen., U. S. A., ) 
Wiishiugton, D. 0. ) 

Tlie battle of Okee Chobee was one of the most obstinate 
actions in the protracted Florida war. The government 
appreciated the achievement of the troops and their gallant 
commander. ]\Ir. Poinsett, secretary of war, gave Colonel 
Taylor the warmest connncndation in a report to Congress, 
and he was imuiediatel}- promoted to the brevet rank of 



ZACHARY TAYLOR. 565 

brigadier-general, with tHe chief command in Florida. He 
fixed his head quarters in the neighbourhood of Tampa 
Bay, from which point he directed the difficult movements 
which the nature of the war required. He was reUeved 
from this arduous service in 1840, when General Armistead 
was ordered to take the command. 

Upon the close of the Seminole war it seems to have been 
the intention of the general to retire from military life ; in 
this, however, he was not indulged by government. In 
1841, not long after his arrival at New Orleans, he was 
ordered to relieve General Arbuckle in the command of the 
second department on the Arkansas river. While at Little 
Rock, on his way to Fort Gibson, he was tendered a public 
dinner by the citizens of that town, as an expression of 
esteem for his " personal worth and meritorious public 
services." In a brief note the general declined this invita- 
tion, on account of the journey being already protracted an 
unusual length of time, and of his being anxious to proceed 
on as rapidly as possible to his destined post. 

General Taylor now took command of the southern de- 
partment of the army, including the states of Louisiana, 
Mississippi, Alabama, and Georgia, and fixed his head 
quarters at Fort Jessup, Louisiana. He was not called into 
active service again until the spring of 1845, when Presi- 
dent Polk, in anticipation of an invasion of Texas, ordered 
him to lead a " corps of observation" to Corpus Christi, 
west of the Nueces, and to repel any invasive attempt of 
the Mexicans. His subsequent glorious achievements in 
the war which began in May, 1846, have been narrated 
somewhat in detail in our account of the administra- 
tion of President Polk. It only remains to speak of what 
relates more especially to General Taylor's personal exer- 
tions. 

Previous to the battles of Palo Alto and Resaca de la 
Palma, the gloomiest period of the Mexican war, the people 
66 



506 ZACHARY TAYLOR. 

of the United States were extremely apprehensive for the 
fate of General Taylor's little army. The general never 
seemed to entertain any fears as to the result. When in- 
formed that Gen. Arista, with about six thousand men, was 
posted between the little garrison at Fort Brown and the 
army at Point Isabel, he expressed his determination to 
inarch to the relief of the garrison, and to fight whatever 
force ojDposed him. This resolution w^as as honourable to 
his character as a soldier, as it was to his humanity as a 
man. The battles of the 8th and 9tli of May, 1846, were 
chiefly gained by the skilful management of the American 
flying artillery, but General Taylor deserves none the less 
credit for his dispositions for attack. At Resaca de la 
Palma, General La Vega was captured by Captain May, of 
the dragoons, and afterwards introduced on the field to Ge- 
neral Taylor, who appreciated the bravery displayed by the 
Mexican officer. General Taylor shook him warmly by the 
hand, and addressed to him the following handsome re- 
marks : 

" General : I do assure you, I deeply regret that this mis- 
fortune has fallen upon you. I regret it sincerelj-, and I 
take great pleasure in returning you the sword which you 
have this day worn with so much gallantry ;" handing him, 
at the same time, the sword which General La Vega had 
yielded to Captain May. General La Vega made a suitable 
reply in Spanish, and was then taken charge of by Colonel 
Twiggs, at the colonel's own request, and entertained by 
him in the most hospitable manner, in his own tent, until 
his departure for New Orleans. 

One must record and admire so much courtesy and 
gentleness, united, in a most sanguinary field, with so much 
devotion and courage. 

On the morning after the battle of Resaca de la Palma, ' 
General Taylor, with his usual humanity, sent to Mata- 
moras for Mexican surgeons' to attend their own wounded, 



EACH ART TAYLOR. 567 

and for men to bury their dead ; and the same day was oc- 
cupied by the Americans in burying their dead. 

On the 11th of May an exchange of prisoners took 
place ; and General Taylor started for Point Isabel for the 
purpose of communicating with Commodore Conner, com- 
manding the American squadron in the Gulf of Mexico, 
who had sailed to Brazos Santiago, in order to render aid 
to the general. The interview is thus humorously described 
by Mr. Thorpe, in his book entitled " Our Army on the 
Rio Grande :" 

"The singular simplicity that marks General Taylor's 
personal appearance and habits, has become a subject of 
universal fame. It is curious that a soldier, so eminent in 
all the qualities of discipline, should be so citizen-looking 
in his own appearance. Commodore Conner, on the con- 
trary, is an officer that is not only strict in his dress, but 
has an extra nicety about it. He appears in full and 
splendid uniform on all public occasions, being the exact 
contrast, in this particular, of General Taylor. 

" At the proper time, Commodore Conner sent word to 
General Taylor, that he would come on shore to pay him a 
visit of ceremony. This put old ' Rough and Ready' into 
a tremendous excitement. If Commodore Conner had 
quietly come up to his tent, and given him a sailor's grip, 
and sat down on a camp-chest, and talked over matters in 
an old-fashioned way. General Taylor would have been pre- 
pared; but, to have the most carefully-dressed officer in our 
navy, commanding the finest fleet, come in full uniform, 
surrounded by all the gUttering pomp of splendid equip- 
nients — to pay a visit of ceremony, was more than General 
Taylor had, without some effort, nerve to go through with ; 
but, ever equal to the emergencies, he determined to com- 
pliment Commodore Conner, and through him the navy, />// 
appearing in fall uniform, a thing his officers, associated 
with him for years, had never witnessed. 



5G8 ZACHARY TAYLOR. 

" In the mean while, Commodore Conner was cogitating 
over the most proper way to compliment General Taylor. 
Having heard of his peculiar disregard of military dress, 
he concluded he would make the visit in a manner com- 
porting to General Taylor's habits, and consequently 
equipped himself in plain white drilling, and, unattended, 
came ashore. 

"The moment General Taylor heard that Commodore 
Conner had landed, he abandoned some heavy work he was 
personally attending to about the camp, and precipitately 
rushed into his tent, delved at the bottom of an old chest, 
and pulled out a uniform coat, that had peacefully slumbered 
for years in undisturbed quietude, slipped himself into it, 
in his haste fastening it so that one side of the standing 
collar was three button-holes above tl;ie other, and sat him- 
self down as uncomfortable as can well be imagined. With 
quiet step, and unattended. Commodore Conner presented 
himself at General Taylor's tent. The noble representa- 
tives of the army and navy shook hands, both in exceeding 
astonishment at each other's personal appearance." 

Some striking incidents attended the capture of Mata- 
moras : — On the morning of the 17th of May, about sunrise, 
General Ampudia gave the signal that he wished a parley 
with General Taylor. He sent over to the camp a person, 
and requested of General Taylor the granting of an armis- 
tice. To this General Taylor replied, "Sir, the time for. 
asking an armistice is past; you should have thought of 
this before ; it is now too late to think of such a thing." 
General Ampudia then desired a suspension of hostilities. 
This, also. General Taylor positively refused. He had 
brought out all his cannon to the front, and was determined 
they should render some service, at the same time joointing 
to the cannon and its position. General Ampudia then 
asked General Taylor if in surrendering the town he would 
be allowed to except the government property. General 



ZACHART TAYLOR. 5G9 

Taylor replied "No," and that he intended to take the town 
at 8 A. M. the next day. 

Ampudia then retired, and General Taylor marched his 
forces up to Fort Brown, and at daylight commenced cross- 
ing the river. No resistance was offered by the Mexicans 
on the bank of the river, and it is said many of them 
assisted in landing the boats. One officer, a lieutenant, 
was drowned in crossing the river. After crossing they 
were met by a number of Mexican officers, who desired to 
know of General Taylor if they could retain the govern- 
ment property. General Taylor replied " that he wanted 
all the town." The American forces then marched into 
the place, and Adjutant Bliss rode up to the fort, and 
sounding the parley, demanded the surrender of the town. 
He was asked if the government property would be excepted. 
He replied " that nothing could be retained, all must be 
surrendered." The Mexican flag was immediately hauled 
down, and the star-spangled banner was run up in its 
stead. 

General Taylor gave orders to his army not to take tjie 
slightest article without paying for its actual value. The 
citizens of Matamoras were permitted to go on with their 
business as usual, with the exception of selling liquors. 

General Taylor's successes were not followed up rapidly, 
on account of the want of troops and supplies. Before the 
end of June he was strongly reinforced by the arrival of 
numerous bodies of fresh volunteers from various parts of 
the Union ; but his means of transportation were still defi- 
cient. A very intelligent writer says, " Had General Taylor 
received the number of volunteers he called for in the first 
instance, with a sufficiency of steamers with which to move 
them and their subsistence, it is thought by those best 
acquainted that the 4th of July would have been celebrated 
in Monterey instead of Matamoras. The Mexicans certainly 



570 ZACHARY TAYLOR. 

could not have recovered from the panic with which they 
started from Resaca de la Palma in season to make a formi- 
dable stand this side the mountains, so that Monterey could 
have been taken without firing a gun. It is too late now. 
A tardiness in forwarding steamers has deprived the com- 
manding general of a most glorious opportunity of occupying 
one of the strongest holds of the enemy." 

On the other hand, the secretary of war, in his annual 
report, thus apologizes for the apparent neglect of the 
government to follow up the brilliant successes of General 
Taylor by prompt and adequate support : 

" Owing to the great difficulty in providing the means of 
transporting supplies for so large a force as that concen- 
trated on the Rio Grande ; to the necessity of drawing all 
those supplies from the United States — the enemy's country 
being destitute of them ; to the unusual freshets which 
retarded the progress of boats on the river, and to the 
impracticability of the land route for wagons at that time, 
arrangements for the movement upon Monterey from 
Matamoras, by the way of Camargo, the route selected by 
the commanding general, were not completed until the 
latter part of August." 

The siege of Monterey was as daring in conception, as it 
was splendid and astonishing in execution. General Taylor 
was almost entirely unprovided with siege ordnance. His 
troops were mostly raw volunteers, and their number was 
not even half of the Mexican, regulars in the town. The 
capture of so strong a place under such circumstances was 
certainly a glorious achievement. 

The first shot fired at Monterey was from one of the 
long culverins, aimed at General Taylor himself, whilst 
reconnoitering. It struck a short distance in front of him 
and bounded over his head. " There ! I knew it would fall 
short of me," he calmly remarked. 

In traversing the field of battle it was necessary to cross 



ZACHARY TAYLOR. 571 

a bridge which was constantly swept by the Mexican artil- 
lery. When approaching it, it was agreed that they (the 
general and his staff) should cross it singly at a gallop. 
Four had crossed thus, when it came to the general's turn. 
Just as he reached the middle of the bridge, and when the 
balls were showering around him, something going wrong 
in another part of the field attracted his attention. Stop- 
ping his horse (much to the discomfiture of those following 
him), he deliberately took out and arranged his spy-glass, 
satisfied himself, and then closing it, rode on. 

By the terms of the capitulation, an armistice of eight 
weeks was agreed upon. General Taylor has been censured 
for this concession, and before the armistice expired, he 
was ordered by his government to break it. From a review 
of all the circumstances, however, it will appear that such 
censure is rash. In granting a cessation of hostilities for 
eight weeks. General Taylor was simply doing what neces- 
sity compelled. His loss had been very severe, the enemy 
were still in great force, and he needed a long time to 
recruit his army for action. 

On the 1st of December, General Taylor was at Victoria, 
apprehensive of an attack from Santa Anna. He was now 
superseded in the command of the Army of Occupation by 
Major-General Winfield Scott, w^ao was appointed comman- 
der-in-chief of all the American forces in Mexico. 

The theatre of Scott's operations was different from that 
of Taylor's. His main object was the reduction of the 
city of Vera Cruz, and the fort of St. Juan de Ulloa, by a 
combined land and sea force. Vera Cruz being the key of 
the main road to the capital. General Scott thought that 
its reduction would compel the Mexicans to sue for peace. 
To effect this object it became necessary for him to draw 
from General Taylor the main body of his regular forces : 
to apprise Taylor of this fact he addressed him the follow- 



572 ZACHART TAYLOR. 

ing letter, which was written previous to his setting out for 
the seat of war. 

New York, Nov. 25, 1846. 

My dear General : I left Washington late in the day 
yesterday, and expect to embark for New Orleans the 30th 
inst. By the 12th of December I may be in that city, at 
Point Isabel the 17th, and Camargo, say the 23d — in order 
to be within easy corresponding distance from you. It is 
not probable that I may be able to visit Monterey, and 
circumstances may prevent your coming to me. I shall 
much regret not having an early opportunity of felicitating 
you in person upon your many brilliant achievements ; but 
we may meet somewhere in the interior of Mexico. 

I am not coming, my dear general, to supersede you in 
the immediate command on the line of operations rendered 
illustrious by you and your gallant army. My proposed 
theatre is different. You may imagine it ; and I wish very 
much that it were prudent, at this distance, to tell you all 
that I expect to attempt or hope to execute. I have been 
.admonished that despatches have been lost, and I have no 
special messenger at hand. Your imagination will be aided 
by the letters of the secretary of war, conveyed by Mr. 
Armistead, Major Graham, and Mr. M'Lane. 

But, my dear general, I shall be obliged to take from 
you most of the gallant officers and men (regulars and 
volunteers) whom you have so long and so nobly com- 
manded. I am afraid that I shall, by imperious necessity — 
the approach of yellow fever on the gulf coast — reduce you, 
for a time, to stand on the defensive. This will be infinitely 
painful to you, and, for that reason, distressing to me. But 
I rely upon your patriotism to submit to the temporary 
sacrifice with cheerfulness. No man can l^ptter afford to 
do so. Recent victories place you on that high eminence ; 
and I even flatter myself that any benefit that may result 
to me, personally, from the unequal division of troops 



ZACHARY TAYLOR. 673 

alluded to, will lessen the pain of your consequent in- 
activity. 

You will be aware of the recent call for nine regiments 
of new volunteers, including one of Texas horse. The 
president may soon ask for many more ; and we are not 
without hope that Congress may add ten or twelve to the 
regular establishment. These, by the spring, say April, 
may, by the aid of large bounties, be in the field — should 
Mexico not earlier propose terms of accommodation ; and, 
long before the spring (March), it is probable you will be 
again in force to resume offensive operations. 

It was not possible for me to find time to write from 
Washington, as I much desired. I only received an inti- 
mation to hold myself in preparation for Mexico, on the 
18th instant. Much has been done towards that end, and 
more remains to be executed. 

Your detailed report of the operations at Monterey, and 
reply to the secretary's despatch, by Lieutenant Armistead, 
were both received two days after I was instructed to pro- 
ceed south. 

In haste, I remain, my dear general, yours, faithfully, 

WINFIELD SCOTT. 

Major-Gen eral Z. Taylor, \ 

U. S. Army, commanding, &c. j 

Not only were nearly all the regular troops now with- 
drawn from General Taylor; but his noble coadjutor Gene- 
ral Worth was detached and ordered to march at the head 
of them from his post at Saltillo towards Vera Cruz, while 
Taylor was ordered to fall back on Monterey and await the 
arrival of fresh recruits, volunteers who were destined to 
take the place of the veteran warriors of Palo Alto, Resaca 
de la Palma, and Monterey. His address to these veterans 
is characteristic : 

" It is with deep sensibility that the commanding general 
finds himself separated from the troops he so long com- 
67 



574 ZACHARY TAYLOR. 

manded. To those corps, regular and volunteer, who had 
shared with him the active services of the field, he feels 
the attachment due to such associations, while to those who 
are making their first campaign, he must express his regret 
that he cannot participate with them in its eventful scenes. 
To all, both officers and men, he extends his heartfelt wishes 
for their continued success and happiness, confident that 
their achievements on another theatre will redound to the 
credit of their country and its arms." 

On reaching Monterey his regular force was 600, including 
May's dragoons. In February he had received reinforce- 
ments raising his army to nearly 6000 men. 

General Taylor did not see proper to take General Scott's 
advice, and stand upon the defensive. If he had allowed 
himself to be shut up in Monterey, Santa Anna could have 
overrun all the lower country and recovered what Mexico 
had lost. Upon hearing of the approach of the Mexican 
general, with a large army, he occupied the strong position 
of Angostura, in front of Buena Vista, where with his 
5400 men he determined to await the attack of 21,000 
Mexican troops. The ground was broken and unfavourable 
for the operations of the Mexican cavalry, while it per- 
mitted the fullest play to the splendid artillery of Taylor's 
army. A better position for such a purpose could not 
have been chosen. 

In answer to Santa Anna's summons to surrender, 
General Taylor sent a modest but firm reply. " I decline 
acceding to your request." The peculiar merits of Taylor 
as a general never shone more brilliantly than at Buena 
Vista. During the early part of the battle, he was at the 
adjacent village, superintending the securing of the baggage 
and stores. When he arrived upon the iSeld, in spite of the 
gallant exertions of General Wool, the fortune of the day 
seemed to be with the enemy. Their cavalry had gained 
the left flank, and the wearied Kentuckians were giving 



ZACHARY TAYLOR. " 575 

ground. General Taylor's presence gave new spirit to the 
whole army. Taking a position amid the thickest of the 
conflict, he gave a few rapid orders, brought his two best 
regiments of infantry to the support of Bragg's splendid 
artillery, and, in a short time, " rolled back the tide of 
war." His troops believed him invincible, and tliey fought 
under his eye with astonishing valour. The great victory 
of Buena Vista raised the reputation of General Taylor to 
the greatest height, and he was at once ranked as one of 
the best commanders of the asre. 

After the battle of Buena Vista, General Taylor left his 
encampment at Agua Nueva, with two companies of 
Bragg's artillery and Colonel May's squadron of dragoons, 
in pursuit of General Urrea, who, as the general learned 
from a spy that was captured by one of the Texan rangers, 
was retreating towards the mountains with 5000 cavalry 
and rancheros. 

On the 16th of March,. General Taylor met Colonel 
Curtis near Marin. This officer, with about 1200 infantry, 
composed of Ohio and Virginia volunteers, one company of 
dragoons, and two pieces of artillery, was now in charge of 
another train of wagons, with supplies for the army. 
General Urrea had left Marin the evening before, where 
he was said to be waiting to attack Curtis's train ; but 
learning that General Taylor was advancing on his rear, 
he had made a rapid movement some twenty miles from 
Marin. The American general followed in pursuit the 
next morning, after sending on the train without an escort, 
and adding Colonel Curtis's command to his previous force. 

The Americans pursued the enemy as far as Caidereta, 
where it was ascertained that he had escaped beyond the 
mountains. General Taylor then fell back upon Monterey. 
This was his last active service in the field. 

Among the slain at the battle of Buena Vista, was 
Colonel Henry Clay, son of the great statesman of Ken- 



576 ZACHARY TAYLOR. 

tucky. General Taylor held the young and gallant officer 
in high estimation; and not long after the conflict he 
indited the following letter to the bereaved parent — a 
tribute which placed his nobihty of feeling in a clear 
view : — 



Head-Quarters Army of Occupation, 

Agua Nueva, Mexico, March 1, 1847. 



My dear Sir : You will no doubt have received, before 
this can reach you, the deeply distressing intelligence of 
the death of your son in the battle of Buena Vista. It is 
with no wish of intruding upon the sanctuary of parental 
sorrow, and with no hope of administering any consolation 
to your wounded heart, that I have taken the liberty of 
addressing you these few lines ; but I have felt it a duty 
which I owe to the memory of the distinguished dead, to 
pay a willing tribute to his many excellent qualities, and 
while my feelings are still fresh, to express the desolation 
which his untimely loss and that of other kindred spirits 
has occasioned. 

I had but a casual acquaintance with your son, until he 
became for a time a member of my military family, and I 
can truly say that no one ever won more rapidly upon my 
regard, or established a more lasting claim to my respect 
and esteem. Manly and honourable in every impulse, 
with no feeling but for the honour of the service and of 
the country, he gave every assurance that in the hour of 
need I could lean with confidence upon his support. Nor 
was I disappointed. Under the guidance of himself and 
the lamented M'Kee, gallantly did the sons of Kentucky, 
in the thickest of the strife, uphold the honour of the 
state and the country. 

A grateful people will do justice to the memory of those 
who fell on that eventful day. But I may be permitted 
to express the bereavement which I feel in the loss of 
valued friends. To your son I felt bound by the strongest 



ZACHARY TAYLOR. 577 

ties of private regard ; and when I miss his familiar face, 
and those of M'Kee and Hardin, I can say with truth, that 
I feel no exultation in our success. 

With the expression of my deepest and most heartfelt 
sympathies for your irreparable loss, I remain. 

Your friend, 

Z. Taylor. 

Hon. Henry Clay, "New Orleans, La. 

In the course of the spring succeeding the battle of Buena 
Vista, General Taylor returned to the United States. Be- 
fore he left Mexico, however, he had been proposed in 
various parts of the Union, as a candidate for the presidency. 
The general had no expectation of such an honour. He 
had never meddled with partisan politics, and he now 
looked for no favours at the hands of parties that required 
pledges. 

His political position seems to be very clearly defined in 
the following letter published in the " Clinton Floridian." 
It was addressed to a Democrat: 

Camp near Monterey, ^Mexico, June 9th, 1847. 

Dear Sir : 

Your letter of the 15th ult., from Clinton, Louisiana, has 
just reached, in which you are pleased to say, " the signs 
of the times in relation to the next presidency, and the 
prominent position of your name in connexion with it, is a 
sufficient excuse for this letter" — that " it is a happy 
feature in our government that official functionaries under 
it, from the lowest to the highest station, are not beyond 
the reach and partial supervision of the humblest citizen, 
and that it is a right in every freeman to possess himself of 
the political principles and opinions of those into whose 
hands the administration of the government may be placed," 
&c., to all of which I fully coincide with you in opinion. 



578 ZACHART TAYLOR. 

Asking my views on several subjects — "1st, as to the 
justice and necessity of this war with Mexico, on our part; 
2d, as to the necessity of a national bank, and the power 
of Congress for creating such an institution ; 3d, as to the 
effects of a high protective tariff, and the right of Congress, 
under the Constitution, to create such a system of revenue." 

As regards the first interrogatory, with my duties and 
the position I occupy, I do not consider it would be proper 
in me to give any opinion in regard to the same ; as a 
citizen, and particularly as a soldier, it is sufficient for me 
to know that our country is at war with a foreign nation, 
to do all in my power to bring it to a speedy and honour- 
able termination, by the most vigorous and energetic ope- 
rations, without inquiring about its justice or anything 
else connected with it ; believing, as I do, it is our wisest 
policy to be at peace with all the world, as long as it can be 
done without endangering the honour and interests of the 
country. 

As regards the second and third inquiries, I am not pre- 
pared to answ^er them ; I could only do so after investigat- 
ing those subjects, which I cannot now do ; my whole time 
being fully occupied in attending to my proper official 
duties, which must not be neglected under any circum- 
stances ; and I must say to you in substance what I have 
said to others in regard to similar matters, that I am no 
politician. Near forty years of my hfe have been passed 
in the public service, in the army, most of which was in 
the field, the camp, on our western frontier, or in the 
Indian country ; and for nearly the two last in this or 
Texas, during wliicli time I have not passed one night 
under the roof of a house. 

As regards being a candidate for the presidency at the 
coming election, I have no aspirations in that way, and 
regret that the subject has been agitated at this early day, 
and that it had not been deferred until the close of this 



ZACHARY TAYLOR. 579 

war, or until the end of the next session of Congress, 
esjDecially if I am to be mixed up with it, as it is possible 
it may lead to the injury of the public service in this 
quarter, by my operations being embarrassed, as well as 
produce much excitement in the country, growing out of 
the discussion of the merits, &c., of the different aspirants 
for that high office, which might have been very much 
allayed, if not prevented, had the subject been deferred as 
suggested; besides, very many changes may take place 
between now and 1848, so much so, as to make it desirable 
for the interest of the country, that some other individual 
than myself, better qualified for the situation, should be 
selected ; and could he be elected, I would not only acqui- 
esce in such an arrangement, but would rejoice that the 
republic had one citizen, and no doubt there are thousands, 
more deserving than I am, and better qualified to discharge 
the duties of said office. 

If I have been named by others, and considered a candi- 
date for the presidency, it has been by no agency of mine 
in the matter — and if the good people think my services 
important in that station, and elect me, I will feel bound 
to serve them, and all the pledges and explanations I can 
enter into and make, as regards this or that polic}'^, is, that 
I will do so honestly and faithfully to the best of my abili- 
ties, strictly in compliance with the constitution. Should 
I ever occupy the White House, it must be by the sponta- 
neous move of the people, and by no act of mine, so that I 
could go into the office untrammelled, and be the chief 
magistrate of the nation and not of a party. 

But should they, the people, change their views and 

opinions between this and the time of holding the election, 

and cast their votes for the presidency for some one else, I 

will not complain. With considerations of respect, I remain, 

your obedient servant, 

Z. Taylor. 

Mr. Edwakd Deluny. 



580 ZACHARY TAYLOR. 

His popularity increased, and it soon became certain 
that he would be nominated as a candidate for the presi- 
dency. 

In the summer of 1848, a national convention of Whigs 
met at Philadelphia, and after several ballotings, nomi- 
nated General Taylor as the Whig candidate for the chief 
magistracy. Millard Fillmore was placed upon the same 
ticket as a candidate for the vice-presidency. At the fall 
election, these candidates received a handsome majority. 

In February, General Taylor left his home in Louisiana, 
for the capital of the republic. Upon the route he w^as 
everywhere received with enthusiastic demonstrations. On 
the 4tli of March, 1849, he was inaugurated president of 
the United States, on which occasion he delivered the 
shortest of all the inaugural addresses. Still the address 
was as eloquent as it was brief. 

The following gentlemen — members of the Whig party — 
were selected to form the cabinet of the new administra- 
tion: John M. Clayton, of Delaware, secretary of state; 
William M. Meredith, of Pennsylvania, secretary of the 
treasury; Thomas Ewing, of Ohio, secretary of the interior 
— a new department; George W. Crawford, of Georgia, 
secretary of war; William B. Preston, of Virginia, secre- 
tary of the navy; Reverdy Johnson, of Maryland, attorney- 
general ; Jacob Collamer, of Vermont, postmaster-general. 

President Taylor and his cabinet had the prospect of 
arduous work before them. Europe was convulsed with 
the uprisings of the people against tyrannical rulers, and the 
foreign relations of the country were, in consequence, some- 
what complicated. A large tract of territory had been 
added to the domain of the republic, and means were to 
be devised for giving it an efficient government. The sub- 
ject of slavery was agitated in all parts of the Union, and 
an intense excitement prevailed in both the north and the 
south. The opposition had a majority in Congress. Such 



ZACHARY TAYLOR. 581 

a state of affairs required a bold, decided, able, and hard- 
working administration. 

Upon the meeting of Congress in December, 1849, the 
Senate proceeded to transact important business before an 
organization could be effected in the House. It was pro- 
posed to suspend all diplomatic intercourse with Austria on 
account of the atrocities perpetrated by that power after 
the insurgent Hungarians were suppressed. This elicited 
a warm discussion; and the proposal was ultimately re- 
jected. The occasion was sufficient, however, to permit a 
free expression of humane sympathies by a number of the 
most distinguished statesmen in the Union. 

In the House, a speaker could not be elected until the 
65th balloting had taken place, when Howell Cobb, of 
Georgia, was chosen by a small majority. During this ex- 
citing contest it was rendered evident that agitators on both 
sides of the slavery question intended to introduce the sub- 
ject into every debate. Threats of dissolving the Union , 
were made in both Houses by prominent members, the dis- 
tinguished statesman, John C. Calhoun, of South Carolina, 
being the chief assertor of secession and nullification doc- 
trines. 

At length, to restore harmony to the councils of the 
nation, a number of distinguished senators proposed a com- 
promise embracing the whole difficulty of slavery. A 
committee of thirteen senators was appointed, the venerable 
Henry Clay being named as chairman, to consider and re- 
port upon the compromise resolutions. After much delibera- 
tion, this committee reported a series of measures to be 
united in one bill. Their objects were to admit California 
into the Union, with her constitution as a free state ; to pro- 
vide territorial governments for New Mexico and the 
Mormon region of Utah ; to restore fugitive slaves to their 
masters ; to abolish the slave trade in the district of Co- 
lumbia; and to pay the state of Texas $10,000,000 to 
68 



582 ZACHART TAYLOR 

relinquish her claim upon New Mexico. This compromise 
measure was known as the "Omnibus Bill." The adminis- 
tration indicated that it was opposed to any such combina- 
tion of measures, and also, that its policy was to admit 
California, without any conditions, and to leave the question 
of slavery in the territories to the people who settled them. 
The other measures were deemed unnecessary at the time. 

The debate upon the " Omnibus Bill" continued for about 
two months, a splendid array of talent being exhibited on 
both sides of the question. Finally, the measures were 
separated, slightly modified, and then passed by both 
Plouses, (August, 1850). Some of these measures were 
violently denounced in various parts of the Union, by ultra 
men. But comparative quiet was restored to the country. 

In the spring of 1850, an expedition was organized in 
the south western part of the Union, with the object of 
revolutionizing the island of Cuba. General Narciso Lopez 
was the commander-in-chief. Supplies were collected and 
men enlisted. The government officials gaining intelligence 
of these movements, President Taylor issued a proclama- 
tion, expressing his determination to maintain the neutral 
laws of the United States, and declaring that those who 
violated them would place themselves beyond the protection 
of the government. The proclamation was as follows : 

" There is reason to believe that an armed expedition is 
about to be fitted out in the United States, with an inten- 
tion to invade the island of Cuba, or some of the provinces 
of Mexico. The best information which the Executive has 
been able to obtain, points to the island of Cuba as the ob- 
ject of this expedition. It is the duty of this government 
to observe the faith of treaties, and to prevent any aggression 
by our citizens upon the territories of friendly nations. I 
have, therefore, thought it necessary and proper to issue 
this proclamation, to warn all citizens of the United States, 



ZACHART TAYLOR. 583 

who shall connect themselves with an enterprise so grossly 
in violation of our laws and our treaty obligations, that 
they will thereby subject themselves to the heavy penalties 
denounced against them by our acts of Congress, and will 
forfeit their claim to the protection of their country. No 
such persons must expect the interference of this govern- 
ment, in any form, on their behalf, no matter to what ex- 
tremities they may be reduced in consequence of their 
conduct. An enterprise to invade the territories of a 
friendly nation, set on foot and prosecuted within the limits 
of the United States, is, in the highest degree, criminal, as 
tending to endanger the peace and compromit the honour 
of this nation ; and, therefore, I exhort all good citizens, as 
they regard our national reputation, as they resj^ect their 
own laws and the laws of nations, as they value the bless- 
ings of peace and the welfare of their country, to discounte- 
nance and prevent, by all lawful means, any such enter- 
prise ; and I call upon every officer of this government, 
civil or military, to use all efforts in his power to arrest, 
for trial and punishment, every such offender against the 
laws providing for the performance of our sacred obliga- 
tions to friendly powers. 

"Given under my hand the 11th day of August, in the 
year of our Lord one thousand eight hundred and forty- 
nine, and the seventy-fourth of the independence of the 
United States. Z. TAYLOR. 

By the President : 

J. M. Clayton, 

Secretary of State" 

The restless spirits engaged in the expedition were un- 
daunted, however, and in the latter part of April, they 
rendezvoused at Contoy island, in the Gulf, about 75 miles 
distant from Cuba. General Lopez, with about 450 men, 
soon afterwards sailed, in the steamer Creole, for the Culjan 



584 ZACHARY TAYLOR. 

shore. On the morning of tlie 19th of May, the invaders 
lauded at the town of Cardenas, and immediately engaged 
a superior force of Spanish troops. The battle was brief 
The Spaniards were routed, and Lopez retained full pos- 
session of the town. An appeal to the people to join his 
ranks was then issued, but few compUed with his wishes, 
and even these could not obtain arms. In the latter part 
of the day some severe fighting took place, and the invaders 
suffered so much that they gave up the expedition, retired 
on board the Creole, and returned to the United States. 
Thus ended an expedition rashly undertaken and feebly 
executed. General Lopez and a number of distinguished 
Americans, who were supposed to have aided the expedition, 
were arrested by the United States, but no evidence could 
be obtained of their criminality, and they were therefore 
discharged. 

After the Compromise discussion and the Cuban expedi- 
tion, the state of affairs in California was the chief source 
of interest during this administration. The golden wealth 
of that territory astonished the world. Immense quantities 
of the precious metal were sent to the Atlantic States and 
to Europe. In the mean time, the turbulent condition of 
the mining region and the important interests lacking regu- 
lation caused the general government considerable anxiety. 
The miners quarrelled among themselves, and the Indians 
displayed their cruel hostility to all the immigrant popula- 
tion, whenever an opportunity presented. As the general 
government delayed the recognition of the State Constitu- 
tion and the admission of the state into the Union, the 
Californians proposed to form an independent government, 
and establish a new empire upon the Pacific. The secre- 
tary of war, in a despatch to General Smith, commander of 
the United States forces in California, thus notices this and 
other matters of importance : — 

" Touching the internal regulations of California, it is pre- 



ZACHART TAYLOR. 585 

sumed that a government de facto remains, or has been 
established in it ; that it rests on the consent of the inhabit- 
ants under it, and that its chief authority is exercised for 
the protection and security of the rights of persons and 
property. CaUfornia being a part of the territory of the 
United States, must be regarded as subject to the constitu- 
tion, and all laws made in pursuance thereof; and hence, 
any regulation in opposition to them will be considered as 
having no binding effect. With this limitation, such a go- 
vernment will be respected and aided by you in the exercise 
of its functions. 

" The defence of the territory against foreign invasion, and 
the preservation of internal tranquillity from civil commo- 
tion, will be objects of your care, and may require the 
exercise of your authority. The duty of regarding the 
obligations of the treaty lately concluded with the republic 
of Mexico, is now superadded ; especially those provisions 
which relate to the time when the resident Mexicans are 
required to make their election of citizenship, and others 
who may choose to remove with tlieir property beyond the 
limits of the United States, into Mexico. The promise to 
incorporate the first class into the Union, with all its attend- 
ant privileges and blessings, may, and doubtless will, be a 
subject of deep concern to Congress, which alone can admit 
them as a component part of our confederacy. Your ob- 
servation and intercourse will furnish ample opportunities 
of knowing their probable number, habits of life, and 
capability to receive and maintain our republican insti- 
tutions. 

" The plan of establishing an independent government in 
California cannot be sanctioned, no matter from what source 
it may come. The territory belongs to the United States, 
and should be defended against all attempts to weaken or 
overthrow their authority. Already have the revenue 
laws and those pertaining to the post office been extended 



586 ZACHARY TAYLOR. 

over them, and appropriate officers appointed to execute 
them. An independent government, as contemplated by 
your letter, would either suspend or set aside the force of 
these laws, and the functions of these officers. The presi- 
dent cannot permit the exercise of any authority in conflict 
with that which he is bound to maintain, by taking care 
that the laws be faithfully executed." 

By the passage of the Compromise measures, Califoraia 
became a sovereign state, and thus a great source of anxiety 
in the Union, and discontent in the mining regions, was 
allayed. 

While the Compromise measures were under discussion 
in Congress, the nation was suddenly called to mourn the 
loss of its chief magistrate. President Taylor died of 
chronic diarrhoea, on the 9th of July, 1850. His illness was 
very short, and his death took the nation by surprise. His 
last words were expressive of his character — " I am ready. 
I have endeavoured to do my duty." His funeral cere- 
monies were attended with all the honours and solemnities 
the republic delights to give to departed greatness. 

In person, General Taylor was of the middle height, 
robust and hardy. His deeply furrowed countenance was 
that of a war-worn soldier, with a general expression of 
combined gentleness and determination. His manners were 
simple and unaffi.^cted, and his bearing towards others was 
that of nature's gentleman. He made but little impression 
as a statesman, but the laurels he won upon many a hard- 
fought field are of a quality that cannot fade. Of all the 
presidents of the United States, Washington alone excepted, 
he had the fewest personal enemies — and these were ever 
lenient in their treatment of him. The mild, but firm 
character of the true hero, was developed most beautifully 
in President Taylor. Under all circumstances, duty was 
his first consideration ; but he performed what he believed 
to be right, unostentatiouslj', and without wantonly or 



ZACHART TAYLOR. 587 

recklessly injuring those who came within his sphere. But 
his character is best deUneated in the eloquent eulogies of 
members of the House of Representatives, upon the an- 
nouncement of his death. The Hon. Charles M. Conrad, 
of Louisiana, spoke of him as follows : — 

*' Mr. Speaker : — In accordance with a wish expressed by 
many members, I have prepared a resolution adapted to 
the melancholy event which has just been announced, and 
which I propose to offer to the House. Before doing so, 
however, I would do violence to my own feelings, as a 
representative of that state of which the illustrious deceased 
was a citizen and the brightest ornament, if I did not offer 
some remarks appropriate to the occasion. Seldom has an 
event occurred which more strikingly illustrates the uncer- 
tainty of life and the instability of all earthly greatness 
than the one we are called upon to deplore. 

" A few days ago General Taylor was in his usual robust 
health. On the fourth of this month he attended some 
ceremonies which took place in commemoration of the 
anniversary of our national independence. As the ceremo- 
nies occurred in the open air, it is believed that the expo- 
sure to a heat of unusual intensity produced the malady, 
which, at about half-past ten o'clock last night, terminated 
liis earthly career. A great patriot has fallen ! A great 
benefactor of his country has departed from among us ! 
In a few hours a nation will be plunged in mourning, and 
a voice of lamentation will ascend from twenty millions of 
people ! 

" It is not my purpose, Mr. Speaker, to dwell at length on 
the public career and military achievements of General 
Taylor.. These belong to the history of his country, and 
are deeply engraven on the memories and hearts of his 
countrymen. I prefer to dwell on those minor traits of his 
character, which, as they exert a less perceptible influence 



588 ZACHARY TAYLOR. 

on the destinies of nations, are too often overlooked by the 
historian. 

" General Taylor's was not one of those characters, of 
which history furnishes many conspicuous examples, in 
which many great defects are concealed amid the dazzling 
splendour of a single virtue. On the luminous disc of his 
character no dark spots are perceptible. His biographer 
will have no great follies to conceal, or faults to excuse, or 
crimes to palliate or condemn. There is no dark passage 
in his life which justice will be called upon to condemn, or 
morality to reprove, or humanity to deplore. Like the 
finished production of an artist, the details of the picture 
are as correct and as beautiful as the general outline is 
grand and imposing. 

" His heroic courage and military genius are those quali- 
ties to which he is chiefly indebted for his fame, and yet 
those who knew him best would not consider them the 
prominent attributes of his character. On the contrary, 
this courage appeared only an adventitious quality, occa- 
sionally developed by circumstances requiring its exercise. 
His prominent characteristics, always manifest, were an 
unaffected modesty, combined with extraordinary^ firmness, 
a stern sense of duty, a love of justice tempered and soft- 
ened by a spirit of universal benevolence, an inflexible 
integrity, a truthfulness that knew no dissimulation, a 
sincerity and frankness which rendered concealment or 
disguise absolutely impossible. 

" These were the traits that endeared him to his friends, 
and inspired with confidence all who approached him. 
These were the qualities which in private life made him 
the upright man, the valuable citizen, the devoted friend, 
the affectionate husband, the fond father, the kind and 
indulgent master, and which, brought into public life, 
made him the disinterested patriot, and the faithful and 
conscientious mndstrate. His martial courai^e was set 



ZACHARY TAYLOR. 589 

off and relieved by this group of civic virtues, as the bril- 
liancy of the diamond is enhanced by the gems of softer 
ray by which it is encircled. 

" The mass of the people in all countries possess a won- 
derful sagacity in detecting the prominent traits of their 
distinguished men. The American people are inferior to 
none in this quality; and they soon discovered and appre- 
ciated the merits of General Taylor. It is not surprising, 
therefore, that they called him, almost by acclamation, to 
fill the first office in their gift. 

" It is so common for the most ambitious men to affect 
a reluctance in accepting those very honours which they 
have long and ardently coveted, that we are apt to con- 
sider all such professions as indicating feelings the very 
reverse of those they express. Those, however, who knew 
General Taylor well, entertained no doubt of the entire 
sincerity of his declarations when he was called upon to be 
a candidate for the office of president. 

" The excitement of politics had no charm for one who 
had alwa3^s been extremely averse to political controversy. 
The pomp and splendour of the presidential mansion had 
no temptations for one who was always remarkable for the 
simplicity of his tastes and the frugality of his habits. 
Add to this, that his unaffected modesty and inexperience 
in public affairs led him sincerely to distrust his ability to 
discharge the duties of this high and responsible station. 

" At no period of our history, indeed, was the executive 
chair surrounded by more difficulties than those whicli 
encompassed it when he was called on to occupy it. Party 
spirit was still raging with unabated fury ; a dark cloud 
was visible on the horizon, which portended that a storm 
of unusual violence was approaching, and would shortl}' 
burst forth. Under such circumstances, a man even of 
stouter heart than his might well hesitate before he con- 
sented to embark on this 'sea of troubles.' Yielding, 
69 



590 ZACHARY TAYLOR. 

however, to the pubhc voice, and to the arguments and 
persuasion of his friends, he did embark. The tempest 
arose ; and in the midst of its fury, while the vessel of 
state was tossed to and fro, and all eyes were turned with 
a confidence not unmingled with anxiety on the pilot who, 
calm and collected, guided her course, that pilot was sud- 
denly swept from the helm !" 

And the Hon. Humphrey Marshall, of Kentucky, one 
of his companions in arms, eulogized his character with 
superior eloquence. 

" I have not risen to dwell upon his great exploits or to 
recount his many virtues. These can derive no additional 
lustre from the voice of exaggerated eulogy : they are 
already familiar to every votary of courage, truth, and 
worth. Comparison between Zachary Taylor and cele- 
brated ancients, illustrious in life or death, will neither 
diminish nor increase his claim to the admiration of man- 
kind. His character was formed on no pre-existing model. 
Reared amidst the solitudes of the western wilderness, his 
principles were fashioned by the precepts of the Kentucky 
pioneer ; and his glorious career has amply vindicated their 
Christianity, wisdom, and patriotism. The statue of his 
fame shall rise before the student of American greatness, 
not merely sublime from the beauty of its just proportions, 
but conspicuous from its originality. The column is now 
complete. Omniscience has withdrawn the workman — 
Time and Earth have but ' the sign and token' of the great 
original. The pencil of history will fill the bold outline 
of our illustrious American, for the contemplation and 
admiration of posterity. 

" Great, without pride ; cautious, without fear ; brave, 
wdthout rashness; stern, without harshness; modest, with- 
out bashfulness ; apt, without flippancy ; intelligent, with- 
out the pedantry of learning ; sagacious, without cunning ; 
benevolent, without ostentation ; sincere and honest as the 



ZACHARY TAYLOR. 591 

sun, the ' noble old Roman' has at last laid down his 
earthly harness — his task is done. He has fallen, as falls 
the summer tree in the bloom of its honours, ere the blight 
of autumn has seared a leaf that adorns it. 

" The beauties of his domestic life remain to his family 
as sacred recollections. It is not for us there to intrude, 
or, by any attempt to pass them in review, to disturb the 
melancholy but sweet satisfaction the memory of them 
must necessarily inspire." 

After the funeral ceremonies were concluded. Senator 
Webster introduced the following resolution into the body 
of which he was a member, and they were subsequently 
adopted by both houses of Congress : 

" A Bill for the erection of a Monument to the memory of 
Zachary Taylor, late President of the United States. 

" Be it enacted hy the Senate and House of Bepreseniatives 
of the United States of America in Congress assembled, That 
the Commissioner of the Public Buildings be and he hereby 
is directed to cause to be erected in the burial ground of 
the city of Washington a neat and appropriate Monument 
to the memory of Zachary Taylor, late President of the 
United States, who died at Washington, the 9 th July, 
1850, with a suitable inscription on the same, stating the 
name, station, age, and time of death of the deceased. 

"Sec. 2. And he it further enacted, That a sum, not 
exceeding two thousand dollars, be, and the same is hereby 
appropriated for the payment of the cost thereof, from any 
money in the Treasury not otherwise appropriated. 



MILLARD FILLMOEE, 



It is one of the peculiar glories of the great American 
republic that it opens the highest positions to simple, naked 
merit. The teacher of a country school to-day may be the 
congressman of to-morrow. Nay, he who wields the sledge 
to earn his bread, may step from his shop to the legislative 
hall, if, in the judgment of his fellow-citizens, he possesses 
the requisite qualifications. The subject of this memoir is 
a brilliant illustration of this grand result of our free 
institutions. His progress from the factory to the presi- 
dential mansion should be attentively studied by every 
American who would appreciate the full value of our 
republican form of government. 

Millard Fillmore was born at Summer Hill, Cayuga 
county, New York, January 7th, 1800. His father was a 
farmer, named Nathaniel Fillmore, who lost all his pro- 
perty through a defect in the title. About the year 1802, 
the family removed to the town of Sempronius, w^here they 
lived until 1819, when the father of the subject of this 
memoir removed to a farm in Erie county. 

The narrow means of his father deprived Millard of any 
advantages of education beyond what were afforded by the 
imperfect and ill-taught schools of the county. Books 
were scarce and dear, and at the age of fifteen, when more 
flivoured youths are far advanced in their classical studies, 
or enjoying in colleges the benefit of well-furnished libraries, 

(592) 



■^H,!^^. -h 




MILLARD FILLMORE. 595 

young Fillmore had read but little except his common 
school books and the Bible. At that period he was sent 
into the then wilds of Livingston county, to learn the 
clothier- trade. He remained there about four months, and 
was then placed with another person to pursue the same 
business and wool-carding in the town where his father 
lived. A small village library, which was formed there 
soon after, gave him the first means of acquiring general 
knowledge through books. He improved the opportunity 
thus offered ; the appetite grew by what it fed upon. The 
thirst for knowledge soon became insatiate, and every 
leisure moment was spent in reading. Four years were 
passed in this w^ay, working at his trade, and storing his 
mind, during such hours as he could command, with the 
contents of books of history, biography, and travels. At 
the age of nineteen he fortunately made an acquaintance 
with the late Walter Wood, Esq., whom many Vvill remem- 
ber as one of the most estimable citizens of that county. 
Judge Wood was a man of wealth and great business 
capacity ; he had an excellent law library, but did little 
professional business. He soon saw that under the rude 
exterior of the clothier's boy, were powers that only 
required proper development to raise the possessor to high 
distinction and usefulness, and advised him to quit his 
trade and study law. In reply to the objection of a lack 
of education, means, and friends to aid him in a course of 
professional study. Judge Wood kindly offered to give him 
a place in his office, to advance money to defray his 
expenses, and wait until success in business should furnish 
the means of repayment. The offer was accepted. The 
apprentice boy bought his time ; entered the office of Judge 
Wood, and for more than two years applied himself closely 
to business and to study. He read law and general litera- 
ture, and studied and practised surveying. 

Fearing he should incur too large a debt to his benefactor, 



696 ^ MILLARD FILLMORE. 

he taught school for three months in the year, and acquired 
the means of partially supportmg himself In the fall of 
1821, he removed to the county of Erie, and the next 
spring entered a law office in Buffalo. There he sustained 
himself by teaching school, and continued his legal studies 
until the spring of 1823, when he was admitted to the 
Common Pleas, and commenced practice in the village of 
Aurora, where he remained until 1830, when he again 
removed to Buffalo, and has continued to reside there ever 
since. 

His first entrance into public life was in January, 1829, 
when he took his seat as a member of the legislature from 
Erie county, to which office he was re-elected the two 
following years. 

His talents, integrity, and assiduous devotion to pubhc 
business, soon won for him the confidence of the House in 
an unexampled degree. It was a common remark among 
the members, " If Fillmore says it is right, we will vote 
for it." 

The most important measure of a general nature that 
came up during his service in the state Legislature was, 
the bill to abolish imprisonment for debt. In behalf of 
that great and philanthropic measure, Mr. Fillmore took 
an active part, urging with unanswerable arguments its 
justice and expediency, and, as a member of the committee 
on the subject, aiding to perfect its details. That portion 
of the bill relating to justices' courts was drafted by him, 
the remainder being the work of the Hon. John C. Spencer. 
The bill met with a fierce, unrelenting opposition at every 
step of its progress, and to Millard Fillmore, as much as to 
any other man, is New York indebted, for expunging 
from the statute book that relic of a cruel and barbarous 
age, imprisonment for debt. 

He was elected to Congress in the year 1832. He 
took his seat in the stormy session of 1833-4, inmiediately 



MILLARD FILLMORE. 597 

succeeding the removal of the deposits. In those days, the 
business of the House and debates were led by old and 
experienced members — new ones, unless they enjoyed a 
wide-spread and almost national reputation, rarely taking 
an active and conspicuous part. Little chance, therefore, 
was afforded him as a member of the opposition, young and 
unassuming, of displaying those qualities that so eminently 
fit him for legislative usefulness. But the school was one 
admirably qualified more fully to develop and cultivate 
those powers which, under more favourable circumstances, 
have enabled him to render such varied and important 
services to his country. As he has ever done in all the 
stations he has filled, he discharged his duty with scrupu- 
lous fidelity, never omitting, on all proper occasions, any 
effort to advance the interest of his constituents and the 
country, and winning the respect and confidence of all. 

At the close of his term of service, he resumed the 
practice of his profession, which he pursued with distin- 
guished reputation and success, until, yielding to the public 
voice, he consented to become a candidate, and was re- 
elected to Cono'ress, in the fall of 1836. In the 25tli 
Congress, Mr. Fillmore took a more active part than he 
had during his first term, and on the assembling of the 
next Congress, to which he was re-elected by a largely 
increased majority, he was assigned a prominent place on 
what, next to that of Ways and Means, was justly antici- 
pated would become the most important committee of the 
House — that on Elections. It was in this Congress that 
the famous contested New Jersey case came up. 

The prominent part which Mr. Fillmore took in that 
fiase, his patient investigation of all its complicated, minute 
details, the clear manner in which he set forth the facts, 
all strongly directed public attention to him as one of 
the ablest men of that Congress, distinguished, as it was, 



598 MILLARD FILLMORE. 

by the eminent ability and statesmanship of many of its 
members. 

On the assenibHng of the next Congress, to which Mr. 
Fillmore was re-elected by a majority larger than was ever 
before given in his district, he was placed at the head of 
the committee of Ways and Means. The duties of that 
station, always arduous and responsible, were at that time 
peculiarly so. A new administration had come into power, 
and found public affairs in a state of the greatest derange- 
ment. Accounts had been wrongly kept, peculation of 
every kind abounded in almost every department of the 
government, the revenue was inadequate to meet the 
ordinary expenses, the already large existing debt was 
rapidly swelling in magnitude, commerce and manufactures 
were depressed, the currency was deranged, banks were 
embarrassed, and general distress pervaded the community. 
To bring order out of disorder, to replenish the national 
treasury, to provide means that would enable the govern- 
ment to meet the demands against it, and to pay off the 
debt, to revive the industry of the country, and restore its 
wonted prosperity ; these were the tasks devolved upon the 
committee of Ways and Means. Mr. Fillmore applied 
himself to the task, and, sustained by a majority whose 
enlightened patriotism has rarely been equalled and never 
surpassed, succeeded in its accomplishment. 

The measures he brought forward, and sustained with 
matchless ability, speedily relieved the government from 
its embarrassment, and have fully justified the most san- 
guine expectations of their benign inlluence upon the coun- 
try at large. A new and more accurate system of keep- 
ing accounts, rendering them clear and intelligible, was in- 
troduced. The favouritism and peculation which had so 
long disgraced the departments and plundered the treasury 
were checked by the requisition of contracts. The credit 
of the government was restored, ample means were pro- 



MILLARD FILLMORE. 599 

vided for the exigencies of the public service, and the pay- 
ment of the National Debt incurred by the former adminis- 
tration. Commerce and manufactures revived, and pros- 
perity and hope once more smiled upon the land. The 
labour of devising, explaining, and defending measures 
productive of such happy results was thrown chiefly on Mr. 
Fillmore. 

After his long and severe labours in the committee room 
— ^labours sufficiently arduous to break down any but one 
of an iron constitution — sustained by a spirit that nothing 
could conquer, he was required to give his unremitting 
attention to the House, to make any explanation that 
might be asked, and be ready with a complete and triumph- 
ant refutation of every cavil or objection that the ingenious 
sophistry of a factious minority could devise. All this, 
too, was required to be done with promptness, clearness, 
dignity, and temper. For the proper performance of these 
varied duties, few men are more happily qualified than Mr. 
Fillmore. At that fortunate age, when the physical and 
intellectual powers are displayed in the highest perfection, 
and the hasty impulses of youth, without any loss of its 
vigour, are brought under control of large experience in 
public affairs, with a mind capable of descending to minute 
details, as well as conceiving a grand system of national 
policy, calm and deliberate in judgment, self-possessed and 
fluent in debate, of dignified presence, never unmindful of 
the courtesies becoming social and public intercourse, and 
of political integrity unimpeachable, he was admirably fitted 
for the post of leader of the 27th Congress. 

In 1844, Mr. Fillmore was nominated by the Whigs of 
New York state as their candidate for governor. Silas 
Wright, an able and popular Democrat, was his opponent, 
and was elected by a large majority. The same year, the 
Democrats carried the state for Mr. Polk. Still the Whigs 
did not lose their confidence in the popularity of Mr. Fill- 
70 



600 MILLARD FILLMORE. 

more. In 1847 he was nominated as a candidate for Comp- 
troller of the state — a very responsible office, and one 
requiring the highest integrity and financial ability in its 
possessor. At the election, Mr. Fillmore triumphed by a 
tremendous majority. 

When General Taylor was nominated for the presidency, 
in 1848, by the Whig National Convention, Mr. Fillmore 
was selected to strengthen the ticket, as a candidate for the 
vice-presidency. This nomination, while it was compli- 
mentary to Mr. Fillmore, secured the cordial support of the 
friends of Henry Clay. The result of the election was the 
triumph of the Whig candidates. 

Mr. Fillmore was inaugurated vice-president of the 
United States on the 4th of March, 1849. He presided 
over the Senate during one of the stormiest sessions ever 
known, with a dignitj" and ability which commanded general 
admiration. He was understood to be in favour of the com- 
promise measures, while President Taylor's administration 
was opposed to them. By the death of tlie president on 
the 9th of July, 1850, Mr. Fillmore became chief magis- 
trate of the Republic. He at once took the oath of office, 
and communicated in a formal message, the death of Presi- 
dent Taylor to Congress. The message was as follows : 

Fellow- Citizens of the Senate and House of Representatives : 
A great man has fallen among us, and a whole coun- 
try is called to an occasion of unexpected, deep, and general 
mourning. 

I recommend to the two houses of Congress to adopt 
such measures, as in their discretion may seem proper, to 
perform with due solemnities the funeral obsequies of 
Zachary Taylor, late president of the United States ; and 
thereby to signify the great and aflfectionate regard of the 
American people for the memory of one whose life has 
been devoted to the public service, whose career in arms 



MILLARD FILLMORE. 601 

has not been surpassed in usefulness or brilliancy, who has 
been so recently raised by the unsolicited voice of the 
people to the highest civil authority in the government, — 
which he administered with so much honour and advantage 
to his country ; and by whose sudden death so many hopes 
of future usefulness have been blighted for ever. 

To you, senators and representatives of a nation in tears, 
I can say nothing which can alleviate the sorrow with 
which you are oppressed. I appeal to you to aid me, under 
the trying circumstances which surround me, in the dis- 
charge of the duties, from which, however much I may be 
oppressed by them, I dare not shrink ; and I rely upon 
Him, who holds in his hands the destinies of nations, to 
endow me with the requisite strength for the task, and to 
avert from our country the evils apprehended from the 
heavy calamity which has befallen us. 

I shall most readily concur in whatever measures the 
wisdom of the two Houses may suggest, as befitting this 
deeply melancholy occasion. Millard Fillmore. 

Waskinglon, Julij lOi'/t, 1850. 

Upon his accession all the members of the cabinet sent 
in their resignations. A new cabinet was organized, but not 
without much delay and difficulty, as the compromise dis- 
cussion had created a breach in the Whig party. Daniel 
Webster, of Massachusetts, was appointed secretary of 
state ; Thomas Corwin, of Ohio, secretary of the treasury ; 
Alexander H. H. Stuart, of Virginia, secretary of the in- 
terior ; Charles M. Conrad, of Louisiana, secretary of war ; 
William H. Graham, of North Carolina, secretary of the 
navy ; John J. Crittenden, of Kentucky, attorney-general ; 
Nathan K. Hall, of New York, postmaster-general. 

Before the end of Mr. Fillmore's administration, Mr. Gra- 
ham retired from the navy department, and John P. Ken- 
nedy, of Maryland, was appointed to succeed him. But 



602 MILLARD FILLMORE. 

one other change occurred in the cabinet by the death of 
Mr. Webster, who was succeeded by Edward Everett, of 
Massachusetts. 

It was expected that the president's pohcy would be de- 
cidedly of a Whig complexion ; but as the opposition had 
a majority in Congress, no great measure of the adminis- 
tration party could be carried out. The president recom- 
mended the protective policy in regard to the tariff, but no 
alteration of importance was made in the tariff adopted in 
1846. 

The foreign relations of the Union had occupied a great 
share of attention during General Taylor's administration. 
Difficulties had occurred with England, France, Spain, and 
Portugal, all of which were finally settled under Mr. Fill- 
more's administration. A treaty was negotiated with 
England, by which a route across Central America was 
secured to both nations. The French minister was dis- 
missed ; but his place was soon filled by a more agreeable 
personage. Spain's apprehensions in regard to the designs 
of the United States upon Cuba were quieted for a time. 
The difficulty with Portugal concerned indemnification for 
the destruction of the privateer General Armstrong in a 
Portuguese port during the war of 1812. Being submitted 
to the arbitration of President Bonaparte, of France, he 
decided in favour of Portugal. In December, 1850, a racy 
correspondence occurred between Secretary Webster and the 
Austrian minister, the Chevalier Hulsemann, concerning an 
alleged interference of the United States in Hungarian 
affairs. Mr. Webster's reply to the letter of the Chevalier 
was generally considered a masterly vindication of the power 
and position of the United States, and it remains a model 
paper for the study of statesmen. 

The failure of the expedition to revolutionize Cuba in 
1850 did not end the efforts of General Lopez and his 
friends. Preparations were secretly made for an expedition 



MILLARD FILLMORE. 603 

on a more extensive scale under the command of the same 
general. The signs were unmistakable, and the officers of 
the government active in gaining intelligence of the move- 
ment. The president issued a proclamation similar in 
character to that issued by President Taylor, when the first 
Cuban expedition was prepared. Nevertheless, men were 
enlisted, and supplies collected in several Southern ports, 
and in August, the steamer Pampero, with General Lopez 
and about 400 men on board, sailed for Cuba. The troops 
landed at the town of Bahia Honda. None of the inhabitants 
joined them in accordance with their expectations, and 
they were left alone to combat the greatly superior forces 
of the Spanish government. The country swarmed with 
persons hostile to the invaders. But supplies were wanting, 
and Lopez determined to press forward to the interior of 
the country, taking to the mountains as a last refuge. 
Colonel Crittenden, with sixty men, was left in charge of the 
baggage. This detachment was attacked by a large body 
of Spaniards and routed. Colonel Crittenden, and fifty-two 
of his men, attempting to escape in open boats, were picked 
up by the Spanish frigate Pizarro, and taken in irons to 
Havana. Their trial and punishment were of a summary 
character — all were shot. 

In the mean time, General Lopez was attacked by large 
numbers of regular Spanish troops, and compelled to fight 
with desperation. The Spaniards were repulsed with great 
slaughter. But being reinforced, they returned to the 
attack, and, after an obstinate conflict, routed the invaders, 
who dispersed among the mountains. Most of them were 
killed or captured. General Lopez was made prisoner and 
taken to Havana, where he was shortly afterwards put to 
death by the garote, a Spanish instrument of execution. 
A large number of the invaders who had been captured 
were imprisoned by the captain-general, Concha, and after- 
wards sent to Spain. The queen, with commendable mode- 



604 MILLARD FILLMORE. 

ration, pardoned them all, and had them sent back to the 
United States. Thus ended another rash attempt to revo- 
lutionize the island of Cuba. Its tendencies were to increase 
the desire of the people in some portions of the United States 
to possess that fertile island, and to excite the alarm, not 
only of Spain, but of other European nations who had 
colonies adjacent to the great republic. 

On the 24th of September, 1852, the secretary of state, 
Daniel Webster, a statesman and orator almost unrivalled 
in the annals of the country, expired at Marshfield, Massa- 
chusetts, at the age of sixty-eight years. Henry Clay, the 
great statesman of the West, had died at Washington but 
a few months before. The death of these distinguished 
men left a void in the national councils which was ex- 
tremely difficult to fill. The country mourned for them, 
and in all the chief cities eulogies were pronounced in hon- 
our of their memory. Mr. Webster was succeeded in the 
office of secretary of state by Edward Everett, of Massa- 
chusetts, who soon found an opportunity to distinguish 
himself in the conduct of foreign affairs. 

Apprehending that the United States government enter- 
tained designs upon Cuba, Lord John Russell, the British 
minister of foreign affiiirs, proposed that Great Britain, 
France, and the United States should enter into a tripartite 
treaty, securing that island to the crown of Spain for ever. 
Mr. Everett rejected this proposal in a lengthy letter, Avhich 
by its force of logic, national spirit, and brilliancy of style, 
excited general admiration. The tripartite treaty was 
clearly shown to be totally incompatible with the true in- 
terest and the progressive policy of the republic. Lord John 
Russell replied to the letter of the American secretary, 
assailed his arguments in a rather sarcastic tone, and con- 
cluded by saying that Great Britain would thenceforward 
be perfectly free to pursue her own separate policy in regard 
to Cuba. This reply was not made directly to the Ameri- 



MILLARD FILLMORE. 605 

can department of state, but in an epistle to Mr. Crampton, 
the British minister at Washington ; and it did not arrive 
in the United States until a new administration had been 
inaugurated, and Mr. Everett had retired from office. From 
the nature of the reply and the character of its direction, 
Mr. Everett considered himself called upon to vindicate his 
position, and he did this in a published letter even more 
remarkable for ability and eloquence than the former epistle 
from the state department. The following passage is in 
vindication of the course pursued by President Fillmore's 
administration : — 

'' There is no doubt widely prevalent in this country a 
feeling that the people of Cuba are justly disaffected to the 
government of Spain. A recent impartial French traveller, 
M. Ampere, confirms this impression. All the ordinary 
political rights enjoyed in free countries, are denied to the 
people of that Island. The government is, in principle, 
the worst form of despotism, viz. : Absolute authority dele- 
gated to a military viceroy, and supported by an array from 
abroad. I speak of the nature of the government, and 
not of the individuals by whom it is administered — for I 
have formed a very favourable opinion of the personal 
character of the present captain-general, as of one or two 
of his predecessors. Of the bad f\iith and the utter disre- 
gard of treaties w^ith which this bad government is ad- 
ministered, your committees on tlie slave trade have spoken 
plainly enough at the late session of Parliament. Such 
being the state of things in Cuba, it does not seem to me 
very extraordinary or reproachful, that, throughout the 
United States, a handful of misguided young men should 
be found, ready to join a party of foreigners, headed by a 
Spanish general, who was able to persuade them, not as 
you view it, ' by armed invasion to excite the obedient to 
revolt, and the tranquil to disturbance,' but, as they were 



606 MILLARD FILLMORE. 

led to believe, to aid an oppressed people in their struggles 
for freedom. 

" There is no reason to doubt that there are, at this mo- 
ment, as many persons, foreigners as well as natives, in 
England, who entertain these feehngs and opinions, as in 
the United States ; and if Great Britain lay at a distance 
of one hundred and ten miles from Cuba, instead of thirty- 
five hundred, you might not, with all your repressive force, 
find it easy to prevent a small steamer, disguised as a tra- 
ding vessel, from slipping off from an outport in the night, 
on an unlawful enterprise. The expedition of General 
Torrijos, in 1831, as far as illegality is concerned, is the 
parallel of that of General Lopez. It was fitted out in the 
Thames, without interruption till the last moment, and 
though it then fell under the grasp of the police, its mem- 
bers succeeded in escaping to Spain, where for sometime 
they found shelter at Gibraltar. It is declared in the last 
number of the Quarterly Review to be 'notorious that 
associations have been formed at London for the subversion 
of dynasties with which England is at peace ; that arms 
have been purchased and loans proposed ; that " Central 
Committees" issue orders from England, and that Messrs. 
Mazzini and Kossuth have established and preside over 
boards of regency for the Roman States and Hungary, and 
for the promotion of revolution in every part of the world.' 
I have before me a list, purporting to be taken from a 
Prussian Police gazette, of fifteen associations of continen- 
tal refugees organized in London and now in action for the 
above-mentioned purposes. 

" When these things are considered, the fact that in the 
course of four or five years two inconsiderable and abortive 
efibrts have been made from the United States, though 
deeply to be lamented and sternly to be condemned as a 
violation of municipal and international law, does not 
appear to me so ' shocking' as it seems to be thought 



MILLAED FILLMOKE. . 607 

by you. It does not, in my judgment, furnish any 
ground for the reproaches which it has drawn wpon 
the government and people of the United States. Nor 
does the remark in my letter of the 1st of December, that 
a disposition to engage in such enterprises would be in- 
creased rather than diminished by our accession to the 
proposed convention, strike me as ' a melancholy avowal,' 
as you pronounced it, on the part of the president. You 
forget the class from which such adventurers are, in all 
countries, enlisted — the young, the reckless, the misin- 
formed. What other effect could be expected to be pro- 
duced on this part of the population, by being told that 
their own government, in disregard of the most obvious 
public interests, as well as of the most cherished historical 
traditions, had entered into a compact with two foreign 
powers to guaranty the perpetuity of the sj'stera under 
which Cuba now suffers ? Does not Lord Howden, the 
English minister at Madrid, make a very similar avowal 
in his letter of the 30th May last, addressed to the Spanish 
Minister of Foreign Affairs, when he saj- s, ' I cannot con- 
clude without expressing my deep regret that the course 
of Spain is such as to produce a general alienation in the 
opinion of the English publi«, out of which will most infal- 
libly result a state of feeling which no government can control 
or oppose.^ 

" The idea that a convention like that proposed was a 
measure naturally called for, in consequence of these law- 
less expeditions, seems to rest upon an entire misconception 
of the present state of the law in the United States, and of 
our treaty relations w^ith Spain. Our treaties with that 
government and the laws of the United States forbid all 
such enterprises. The tripartite convention would have 
added nothing to their unlawfulness. If we had been 
desirous of multiplying objections, we might well have 
complained that the acts of a very snuill number of rash 
71 



G08 MILLARD FILLMORE. 

young men, citizens and foreigners, should be put forward 
by two of the leading powers of Europe as the main reason 
why we should be expected to enter into a strange com- 
pact with those powers, binding ourselves never to make a 
lawful and honourable acquisition of Cuba. There is no 
logical connexion betw^een the ideas, and there is something 
bordering upon the offensive in their association. 

" Consider, too, the recent antecedents of the powers that 
invite us to disable ourselves to the end of time from the 
acquisition in any way of this natural appendage to our 
continent. France, within the present century, to say 
nothing of the acquisition of Louisiana, has wrested a 
moiety of Europe from its native sovereigns ; has possessed 
herself by force of arms, and at the time greatly to the dis- 
content of England, of six hundred miles of the northern 
coast of Africa, with an indefinite extension into the 
interior, and has appropriated to herself one of the most 
important insular groups of the Pacific. England, not to 
mention her other numerous recent acquisitions in every 
part of the globe, has, even since your despatch of the 16th 
of February was written, annexed half of the Burman 
empire to her overgrown Indian possessions, on grounds — 
if the statements in Mr. Cobden's pamphlet are to be relied 
upon — compared with which the reasons assigned by Russia 
for invading Turkey are respectable. 

" The United States do not require to be advised of the 
utility of those rules for the observance of international 
relations, which for centuries have been known to Europe 
by the name of the ' Law of Nations.' They are know^n 
and obeyed by us under the same venerable name. Certain 
circumstances in our history have caused them to be studied 
more generally and more anxiously here than in Europe. 
From the breaking out of the wars of the French Revolu- 
tion, to the year 1812, the United States knew the law of 
nations only as the victims of its systematic violation by 



MILLARD FILLMORE. 609 

tlie great maritime powers of Europe. For these violations 
on the part of England, prior to 1794, indemnification was 
made under the seventh article of Jay's Treaty. For 
similar injuries on the part of France, we were compelled 
to accept an illusory set-off under the convention of 1800. 

" A few years only have elapsed, before a new warfare 
upon our neutral rights was commenced by the two powers. 
One hundred millions at least of American property were 
swept from the seas, under the British orders in council and 
the French Berlin, and Milan Decrees. These orders and 
decrees were at the time reciprocally declared to be in con- 
travention of the law of nations by the two powers them- 
selves, each speaking of the measures of the other party. 

" In 1831, after the generation of the original sufferers had 
sunk under their ruined fortunes to the grave, France 
acknowledged her decrees to have been of that character, 
by a late and partial measure of indemnification. For our 
enormous losses under the British orders in council, we not 
only never received indemnification, but the sacrifices and 
sufferings of the war were added to those spoliations on our 
commerce, and invasion of our neutral rights, which led to 
its declaration. Those orders were at the time regarded by 
the Lansdownes, the Barings, the Broughams, and the other 
enlightened statesmen of the school to which you belonged, 
as a violation of right and justice as well of sound policy ; 
and within a very few years the present distinguished Lord 
Chief Justice, placed by yourself at the head of the tri- 
bunals of England, has declared that ' the orders in council 
were grievously unjust to neutrals, and it is now generally 
allmved that tliey were contrary to the law of nations and our 
own munici]~>al law!' 

"That I call, my Lord, to borrow your expression, 'a 
melancholy avowal' for the chief of the jurisprudence of a 
"•reat empire. Acts of its sovereign authority, counte- 
nanced by its Parliament, rigidly executed by its fleets on 



610 MILLARD FILLMORE. 

every sea, enforced in the courts of admiralty by a magis- 
trate whose learning and eloquence are among the modern 
glories of England, persisted in till the lawful commerce of 
a neutral and kindred nation was annihilated, and pro- 
nounced by the highest legal authority of the present day, 
contrary not merely to the law of .nations but your own 
municipal law ! 

" Under these circumstances, the government and people 
of the United States, who have never committed or 
sanctioned a violation of the law of nations against any 
other power, may well think it out of place, that they 
should be instructed by an English Minister in ' the utility 
of these rules which for centuries have been known to 
Europe by the name of the la^f of nations.' 

" There are several other points in your despatch, some of 
great public moment, which, if I were still in office, I should 
discuss on this occasion. I have, however, deemed it proper, 
at present, to confine myself to such remarks as seemed 
necessary to vindicate my letter of the 1st of December, 
from your strictures, leaving the new aspects of the case 
Avhich your despatch presents, especially in its opening and 
closing paragraphs, to those whose official duty it is to con- 
sider them." 

The elections throughout the states during President Fill- 
more's administration had generally resulted in adding 
strength to the opposition. In 1852, the National Conven- 
tion of the Democratic party assembled at Baltimore. 
Resolutions, embodying the principles of the party, were 
adopted. A large number of candidates were brought 
before the convention, and forty-nine ballotings were held 
before a nomination for the presidency could be made. 
Franklin Pierce, of New Hampshire, was the nominee. 
William R. King, of Alabama, was placed upon the same 
ticket as a candidate for the vice-presidency. Soon after 
the adjournment of this convention, the National Conven- 



MILLARD FILLMORE. 611 

tion of the Whig party assembled in the same city. A 
platform of principles was adopted. The candidates for 
the great nomination were General Winfield Scott, Presi- 
dent Fillmoip, and Secretary Webster. On the fifty-third 
ballot General Scott received the nomination for president. 
William A. Graham, of North Carolina, was nominated for 
the vice-presidency. Both of these National Conventions 
sanctioned, in express terms, the compromise measures. 
In August, a "Free Soil" convention was held at Pitts- 
burgh, and John P. Hale, of New Hampshire, and George 
W. Julian, of Indiana, were nominated for the presidency 
and vice-presidency. Other candidates were nominated in 
various sections of the Union. 

At the election in November of the same year, the can- 
didates of the National Democratic party received ma- 
jorities in all but four states — Vermont, Massachusetts, 
Kentucky and Tennessee, in which the AVhig candidates 
obtained majorities. The opposition were, therefore, tri- 
umphant. 

President Fillmore's fi.nal message to Congress in De- 
cember, contained a lucid review of the condition of affairs 
in the republic, and an argument for the protective policy. 
Its recommendations were of but little importance to the 
opposition majority in Congress. The session was chietly 
occupied by discussions upon the foreign relations of the 
Union, especially concerning the movements of Great 
Britain, Spain, and Mexico. No measure of general im- 
portance was adopted. An act, creating the rank of lieu- 
tenant-general, intended as a particular honour to General 
Winfield Scott, passed the Senate, but was laid upon the 
table in the House. The increase of special legislation was 
particularly remarkable during this session. 

On the 3d of March, 1853, Mr. Fillmore's term of office 
expired. He remained in Washington to witness the inau- 
^mration of his successor, and then retired to his residence 



612 



MILLARD FILLMORE. 



in Buffalo, N. Y. He was still comparatively a young man, 
and he could look forward to the enjoyment of many happy 
days of private life, surrounded by an abundance of worldly 
goods and social delights. 

In person, Mr. Fillmore is rather above the ordinary 
height, and his frame is large and strong. The expression 
of his countenance is cheerful and benevolent, with unmis- 
takeable indications of superior intelligence. His bearing 
is dignified, courteous, and winning, and his manners are 
of the true republican stamp. While he held the office of 
president, one of his daughters might have been found 
teaching school in New York. No false notions of dignity 
belong to the family. Mr. Fillmore has a mind of a prac- 
tical, hard-working order. While in Congress, he had no 
superior as a " business man," and, in the presidency, he 
laboured with exemplary care and rare patience. He is an 
honour to the institutions under which he was fostered, and 
a noble illustration of what they can confer upon honest 
merit. 




FKANKLIN PIEECE. 



The fourteenth President of the United States sprang 
from a family well-known in the military annals of the 
republic, was regularly educated for political life, entered 
upon the theatre of public events at an unusually early age, 
and advanced to the highest positions under the happiest 
auspices. His career is different in many respects from 
that of all who preceded him in the presidential chair. 

Franklin Pierce is the fourth son of Benjamin Pierce, 
of Hillsborough, New Hampshire. The father was an 
extraordinary man. He was a native of Massachusetts, 
and he followed the plough till he was seventeen years of 
age. Enlisting as a common soldier in the revolutionary 
ranks of his countrymen, he fought bravely, and at the end 
of the struggle, quitted the army with the rank of a captain. 
He then bought a farm at Hillsborough, New Hampshire, 
settled down, became popular, and was made a brigadier- 
general in the militia. He married twice. His second wife, 
Anna Hendrick, was the mother of the subject of this 
memoir. General Benjamin Pierce subsequently held 
numerous civil offices in New Hampshire, and was twice 
elected governor. He died in April, 1839. 

Franklin Pierce was born at Hillsborough, on the 23d 
of November, 1804. As a child he was remarkable for 
energy and intelligence. His father, having felt the incon- 
veniences of a defective education, determined to give him 

(615) 



616 FRANKLIN PIERCE. 

every opportunity for improvement, and at an early age 
sent him to an academy at Hancock. The boy was after- 
wards sent to an academj^ at Francistown, where he was 
received into the family of his father's old friend, Peter 
Woodbury, where he remained till he was sixteen years of 
age. In 1820, he entered Bowdoin College, at Brunswick, 
Maine. His friend and biographer, the brilliant Nathaniel 
Hawthorne, says that 

" During the earlier part of his college course, it may be 
doubted whether Pierce was distinguished for scholarship. 
But, for the last two years, he appeared to grow more intent 
on the business in hand, and, without losing any of his 
vivacious qualities as a companion, was evidently resolved 
to gain an honourable elevation in his class. His habits 
of attention, and obedience to college discipline, were of 
the strictest character ; he rose progressively in scholarship, 
and took a highly creditable degree." 

He is remembered by his classmates as an officer of a 
college military company, and as an occasional teacher of a 
country school, where no regular tutor could be obtained. 

Leaving college in the year 1824, young Pierce returned 
to Hillsborough. He remained at home but a short time. 
Having chosen the profession of the law, he went to Ports- 
mouth, and entered the office of Judge Woodbury. The 
last two years of his preparatory studies were spent at the 
law school of Northampton, Massachusetts, and in the office 
of Judge Parker, at Amherst. He was admitted to the 
bar in 1827, and began the practice of his profession at 
Hillsborough. His first case was a failure, and a very 
marked one. But his defeat only nerved him to more 
strenuous effi^rts, and developed the latent resources of his 
mind. Yet some years elapsed before he attained distinc- 
tion at the bar. Politics diverted his attention ; for about 
this period, his father was governor of New Hampshire, 
'and the exciting contest between General Jackson and John 



.FRANKLIN PIERCE. 617 

Quincy Adams was at full heat. Governor Pierce and his 
son were both ardent friends of Jackson. 

In 1829, young Pierce was elected to the legislature, to 
represent the town of Hillsborough. His whole service in 
that body extended over four years, in the two latter of 
w^iicli he was elected speaker by a large majority. He is 
said to have performed the duties of that arduous post 
with an ability that justified his election, although so young 
a man. 

In 1833, Mr. Pierce was elected to represent his native 
district in Congress. He did not immediately come for- 
ward as a speech-maker, but was remarkable for diligence, 
and a strict attention to business. He was constant and 
thorough-going in his support of President Jackson's ad- 
ministration. After serving in the national House of 
Representatives for four years, he was in 1837, elected to 
the Senate of the United States, being then scarcely of the 
legal age. At that time, the Senate presented a splendid 
array of genius and eloquence, and native modesty re- 
strained the youngest member from frequent participation 
in debate. But he occasionally spoke with effect. In 
1840, he delivered a speech upon the subject of revolu- 
tionary pensions, from w^iich we extract the following 
passage, as illustrating the principles that guided his 
legislative course. 

" I am not insensible, Mr. President* of the advantages 
with which claims of this character always come before 
Congress. They are supposed to be based on services for 
which no man entertains a higher estimate than myself 
— services beyond all praise, and above all price. But, 
.while warm and glowing with the glorious recollections 
which a recurrence to that period of our history can never 
fail to awaken; while we cherish with emotions of pride, 
reverence, and affection the memory of those brave men 
who are no longer with us ; while we provide, with a 
72 



618 FRANKLIN PIERCE. 

liberal hand, for such as survive, and for the widows of the 
deceased; while we would accord to the heirs, whether in 
the second or third generation, every dollar to which they 
can establish a just claim, — I trust we shall not, in the 
strong current of our sympathies, forget what becomes us 
as the descendants of such men. They would teach us to 
legislate upon our judgment, upon our sober sense of right, 
and not upon our impulses or sympathies. No, sir; we 
may act in this way, if we choose, when dispensing our 
own means, but we are not at liberty to do it when dis- 
pensing the means of our constituents. 

" If we were to legislate upon our sympathies — yet more 
I will admit — if we were to yield to that sense of just and 
grateful remuneration which presses itself upon every 
man's heart, there would be scarcely a limit for our bounty. 
The whole exchequer could not answer the demand. To 
the patriotism, the courage, and the sacrifices of the 
people of that day, we owe, under Providence, all that we 
now most highly prize, and what we shall transmit to our 
children as the richest legacy they can inherit. The war 
of the revolution, it has been justly remarked, was not a 
war of armies merely — it was the war of nearly a whole 
people, and such a people as the world had never before 
seen, in a death struggle for liberty. 

" The losses, sacrifices, and sufferings of that period 
were common to all classes and conditions of life. Those 
who remained at home suffered hardly less than those who 
entered upon the active strife. The aged father and 
mother underwent not less than the son, who would have 
been the comfort and stay of their declining years, now 
called to perform a yet higher duty — to follow the standard 
of his bleeding country. The young mother, with her 
helpless children, excites not less deeply our sympathies, 
contending with want, and dragging out years of weaiy 
and toilsome days and anxious nights, than the husband in 



FRANKLIN PIERCE. G19 

the field, following the fortunes of our arms without the 
common habiliments to protect his person, or the requisite 
sustenance to support his strength. Sir, I never think of 
that patient, enduring, self-sacrificing army, which crossed 
the Delaware in December, 1777, marching barefooted 
upon frozen ground to encounter the foe, and leaving 
bloody footprints for miles behind them — I never think of 
their sufferings during that terrible winter without in- 
voluntarily inquiring, Where then were their fimilies? 
Who lit up the cheerful fire upon their hearths at home ? 
Who spoke the word of comfort and encouragement? 
Nay, sir, who furnished protection from the rigours of 
winter, and brought them the necessary means of sub- 
sis tan ce ? 

" The true and simple answer to these questions would 
disclose an amount of suftering and anguish, mental and 
physical, such as might not have been found in the ranks 
of the armies — not even in the severest trial of that 
fortitude which never faltered, and that power of endurance 
which seemed to know no limit. All this no man feels 
more deeply than I do. But they were common sacrifices 
in a common cause, ultimately crowned with the reward 
of liberty. They have an everlasting claim upon our 
gratitude, and are destined, as I trust, by their heroic 
example, to exert an abiding influence upon our latest 
posterity." 

With this heartfelt recognition of the debt of gratitude 
due to those excellent men, the senator enters into an 
analysis of the claims presented, and proves them to be 
void of justice. The whole speech is a good exponent of 
his character; full of the truest sympathy, but, above all 
things, just, and not to be misled, on the public behalf, by 
those impulses that would be most apt to sway the private 
man.* 

* Hawthorne. 



^i 



620 FRANKLIN PIERCE. 

• 

In the course of the extra session of Congress called by 
President Harrison, Mr. Pierce made a forcible speech 
against the removals from office made by the chief magis- 
trate, and argued to show that they were in violation of 
the pledges made before the election. The friends of the 
administration contended that the removals were justified 
by necessity and the circumstances of the time. To this 
Mr. Pierce replied : 

" Sir, this demand of the nation, — this plea of state 
NECESSITY, — let me tell gentlemen, is as old as the history 
of wrong and oppression. It has been the standing plea, 
the never-failing resort of despotism. The great Julius 
found it a convenient plea when he restored the dignity of 
the Roman Senate, but destroyed its indej^endence. It gave 
countenance to, and justified all the atrocities of the Inqui- 
sition in Spain. It forced out the stifled groans that issued 
from the Black Hole of Calcutta. It was written in tears 
upon the Bridge of Sighs, in Venice, and pointed to those 
dark recesses upon whose gloomy thresholds there was 
never seen a returning footprint. 

" It was the plea of the austere and ambitious Strafford, 
in the days of Charles I. It filled the Bastile of France, 
and lent its sanction to the terrible atrocities perpetrated 
there. It was this plea that snatched the mild, eloquent, 
and patriotic Camille DesniouUns from his young and beau- 
tiful wife, and hurried him to the guillotine, with thousands 
of others, equally unoffending and innocent. It was upon 
this plea that the greatest of generals, if not men, — you 
cannot mistake me, — I mean him, the presence of whose 
very ashes, within the last few months, sufficed to stir the 
hearts of a continent, — it was upon this plea that he abjured 
the noble wife who had thrown light and gladness around 
his huml^ler days, and by her own lofty energies and high 
intellect, had encouraged his aspirations. It was upon 
this plea that he committed that worst and most fatal act 



« 9 



FRANKLIN TIERCE. G21 

of his eventfal life. Upon this, too, he drew around his 
person the imperial purple. It has in all times, and in 
every age, been the foe of liberty, and the indispensable 
stay of usurpation. 

" Where were the chains of despotism ever thrown 
around the freedom of speech and of the press, but on this 
plea of STATE NECESSITY ? Let the spirit of Charles X. and 
of his ministers answer. 

" It is cold, selfish, heartless, and has always been 
regardless of age, sex, condition, services, or any of the 
incidents of life that appeal to patriotism or humanity. 
Wherever its authority has been acknowledged, it has 
assailed men who stood by their country when she needed 
strong arms and bold hearts, and has assailed them when, 
maimed and disabled in her service, they could no longer 
brandish a weapon in her defence. It has afflicted the 
feeble and dependent wife for the imaginary fsiults of the 
husband. It has stricken down Innocence in its beauty, 
Youth in its freshness, Manhood in its vigour, and Age in 
its feebleness and decrepitude. Whatever other plea or 
apology may be set up for the sweeping, ruthless exercise 
of this civil guillotine at the present day, in the name of 
Liberty let us be spared the fearful one of state necessity, 
in this early age of the republic, upon the floor of the 
American Senate, in the face of people' yet free!" 

In June, 1842, he resigned his seat in the Senate of the 
United States. In 1834 he had married Jane Means, a 
daughter of the Rev. Dr. Appleton, a former president of 
Bowdoin College. Three sons had been born to him, the 
first of whom died in early inf mcy ; and having been kept 
poor by his public services, he became sensible that he 
should make some provision for the future. On retiring 
from the Senate, he took up his residence at Concord, the 
capital of his native state, and resumed the practice of the 



622 FRANKLIN PIERCE. 

law. He was immediately ranked at the head of the New 
Hampshire bar. His forensic efforts were distinguished 
for force and eloquence, and his power over the minds of a 
jury was surprisingly great. His practice was extensive 
and various. 

In 1846, President Polk offered Mr. Pierce the post of 
A-ttorney-General of the United States. But he declined 
the honour, in a letter every way worthy of a noble repub- 
lican character. Previous to this appointment, Mr. Pierce 
had been tendered the position of United States Senator 
by Governor Steele, and this, also, he declined. A Demo- 
cratic convention nominated him for governor, but he could 
not be persuaded to consent to stand as a candidate. 

On the breaking out of the Mexican war, Mr. Pierce 
evinced his patriotism by enrolling himself as a private in 
a company raised in Concord. On the passage of a bill for 
the increase of the army, he received the appointment of 
colonel of the 9th regiment, and shortly afterwards (March, 
1847) he was commissioned as brigadier-general in the 
army. 

On the 27th of May, 1847, General Pierce sailed from 
Newport, in the bark Kepler. Large numbers of the 
troops on board were sick, and suffered from want of water, 
being upon a short allowance. Under these circumstances, 
General Pierce shared his own allowance with his men, and 
mingled with them to encourage them. It was character- 
istic of the man, for kindness is his nature. On the 28th 
of June, he arrived at Vera Cruz. Here he encountered 
pestilence and disease, and was himself taken very ill. 
But amid disease and death, he had constant and careful 
thought of the men under his charge. His benevolence 
was never weary. He spent his money freely, and soon 
became exceedingly popular. 

General Pierce was obliged to remain more than three 



FRANKLIN PIERCE. G23 

weeks at Vera Cruz, in consequence of a want of proAnsions, 
while he was for more than four weeks in Tierra Caliente, 
the vomito region. 

At length he marched for Vera Cruz, with a train which, 
when closed up, extended two miles. He went through a 
country, and over a road, strong in natural defences, swarm- 
ing with guerillas, dogged at every step by a wily enemy, 
with constant alarms and reports of attacks, and was as- 
saulted six times on his road, yet he reached Puebla with- 
out the loss of a single wagon, and with his command in 
fine order. The conduct of the general, in this march — 
his energy, his vigilance, coolness in difficulty, good judg- 
ment and skill in availing himself of the services of his 
staff — won the highest encomiums from military men of 
the old line, and elicited the warm conmiendations of Gene- 
ral Scott. 

" General Pierce was in action at the National Bridge. 
Here the Mexicans were strongly posted. The place fur- 
nished strong natural advantages. Across the main bridge 
they had thrown a barricade, and on a high bluff which 
commanded it, they had added breastworks. There was 
no way in which this position could be turned, and the 
general's artillery would have been ineffective for the most 
commanding point in which it could be placed. He de- 
termined to cross under the fire of the enemy's escopetes. 
His order to storm these works was admirably executed. 
Lieutenant-Colonel Bonham's battalion rushed forward with 
a shout, under a heavy fire from the enemy, that struck 
down many of his men. But they pressed forward and 
leaped the barricade, followed by Captain Dupreau's com- 
pany of cavalry. In ten minutes, the enemy were in flight 
in every direction. General Pierce was by the side of 
Colonel Bonham in this attack. Both had narrow escapes. 
The colonel's horse was shot, and a ball passed through 
the rim of the general's hat. This was a well-devised and 



G24 FRANKLIN PIERCE. 

gallant affair, and the fame of it went before General Pierce, 
and he was handsomely spoken of in the army. This was 
the first action of importance in which he was engaged. 

On the 1st of August, General Pierce was at Perote, and 
advised General Scott of the state of his command as fol- 
lows : 

" I shall bring to your command about twenty-four hun- 
dred, of all arms. To-morrow morning at four o'clock I 
shall leave here for Puebla, and shall make the march in 
four days." 

The men under his care were principally northern re- 
cruits ; they had suffered much by disease ; had been 
attacked five times by guerilla parties, and yet General 
Pierce had lost scarcely a man, though in the heart of an 
enemy's country. On the 6th of August he joined General 
Scott at Puebla, with his command in excellent condition. 

General Pierce was again in action at Contreras, on the 
19th of August. His brigade was ordered to attack 'the 
enemy in front. He came in sight of the Mexicans at two 
o'clock in the afternoon, and led his men in the attack. 
He was under a galling fire of the enemy three hours. As 
he was leading his brigade through a perfect shower of 
round shot and shells from the strong intrenchments in 
front, and the musketry of the infantry, his liorse, being at 
full speed, fell under him upon a ledge of rocks. He 
sustained severe injury by the shock and bruises, but 
especially by a severe sprain in his left knee, which came 
under him. At first, he was not conscious of being much 
hurt, but soon became exceedingly faint. Dr. Richie, a 
surgeon in his command, assisted hira, and administered to 
him. In a few moments, he was able, with difficulty, to 
walk, when he pressed forward to Captain Magruder's 
battery. Here he found the horse of Lieutenant Johnson, 
who had just received a mortal wound. He was permitted 
to take this horse, was assisted into the saddle, and con- 



FRANKLIN PIERCE. 625 

tinued in it until eleven o'clock that night. At nine 
o'clock he was the senior officer on the field, when he 
ordered his command to a new position. The night was 
dark, the rain poured in torrents, and the ground was 
difficult, yet the general- still kept on duty. At one o'clock, 
in his bivouac, he received orders from General Scott by 
General Twiggs and Captain Lee, when, at the head of his 
command, he moved to take another position, to be in 
readiness to aid in the operations of the next morning. 
Such was General Pierce's service in the afternoon and 
night of August 19th. 

" At daylight, on the morning of the 20th, his command 
assailed the enemy with great intrepidity, and contributed 
much to the consummation of the work begun on the 
previous day. That morning, Valencia, with seven thou- 
sand troops, was defeated. General Pierce still kept the 
saddle, and was at the head of his brigade. He was 
ordered to pursue the flying enemy, and as he passed the 
enemy's works the scene was awful. The road, he says, 
and adjacent fields were everywhere strewed with the 
mangled bodies of the dead and dying. ^ We continued 
the pursuit,' he says, ' until one o'clock, when our front 
came up with the enemy's strong works at Churubusco 
and San Antonio.' Then (after one o'clock), this great 
conflict commenced. 

" At San Angel dispositions had been made to attack in 
reverse, the enemy's works on the San Augustine road. 
General Scott ordered him to march his brigade, in concert 
with that of the intrepid General Shields, across the open 
country between Santa Catarina and the above road, in 
order to cut ofi" the retreat of the enemy. This position 
was promptly reached. The enemy's line was found in 
perfect order, extending as far in either direction as the 
eye could reach, and presenting a splendid show. He was 
vigorously and successfully attacked. At the head of his 
73 



626 FRANKLIN PIERCE. 

command, General Pierce arrived at a ditch, which it was 
impossible for his horse to leap. He dismounted, and, 
without thinking of his injury, he hurried forward at the 
head of his brigade, for about three hundred yards, into 
the midst of the enemy's fire. Turning suddenly upon his 
knee, the cartilage of which had been badly injured, he 
fainted and fell upon a bank in direct range and within 
perfect reach of the Mexican shot. The rout of the 
Mexican force was soon complete. Colonel O'Hara, who 
saw him, and served with him in this battle, says ' he was 
found in the foremost rank of battle, and through most of 
that bloody day, he was the spirit of the wing in which he 
was placed.' 

" General Pierce's next service was his connexion with 
the armistice, which the enemy asked, it was supposed, 
with a view to peace. He had not taken oif his spurs, nor 
slept an hour for two nights, in consequence of the pain of 
his knee and his engagements in the field. It was after 
he had been borne insensible from the battle, and had just 
recovered from his faintness, that he received notice of the 
honourable distinction that had been conferred upon him, 
in being appointed one of the commissioners to arrange the 
terms of an armistice. He obeyed the summons, was 
helped into his saddle, rode two and a half miles to 
Tacubaya, and met the commissioners at the house of Mr. 
M'Intosh, the British consul-general. The conference 
commenced late in the afternoon, and at four the next 
morning the articles were signed. 

" General Pierce's next service was in connexion with 
the battle of Molino del Rey, September 8th. His brigade 
was ordered into action by General Scott, who commended 
the zeal and rapidity of its movement. Though the battle 
had been decided before it reached the field, yet General 
Pierce brought his command under fire in such fine order 
as to win praise from the old officers. Here he was for 



FRANKLIN PIERCE. 627 

some time engaged in the honourcable service of covering 
the removal of killed and wounded, and the captured am- 
munition, from the field. While so occupied — Colonel 
Riley in his official report writes — ' the 2d infiintry — tem- 
porarily under the orders of Brigadier-General Pierce — 
became engaged with the enemy's skirmishes at the foot of 
Chapultepec' It was in these skirmishes that he exhibited 
the gallantry that called forth the encomiums of his bro- 
ther officers, and excited the enthusiasm of the men. 

" General Pierce's next service was in connexion with 
the battle of Chapultepec. His brigade was assigned an 
important position on the 12th — the evening previous to 
the battle — which it was prompt to take. But the general 
had been for thirty-six hours previous confined to his bed, 
and was not with his brigade. And it was owing to this 
illness that he was not, on the 13th, by the side of the 
brave Ransom and Seymour, storming the heights of Cha- 
pultepec. Ill as he was, however, to the surprise of his 
brother officers, he left his bed on the night of the loth for 
the purpose of sharing in the contemplated storming of the 
Mexican capital on the following morning. It was a most 
eventful night. The brave General Quitman had fought his 
way by the gate Belen to a point within Mexico, where, 
under cover of darkness, he was raising defences in the po- 
sition he had won to shelter his corps. At this time he 
was under the guns of a most formidable citadel, which had 
yet to be conquered. It was such times that called forth 
the indefatigable energy of the accomplished engineers. 
Sand-bags were procured. Parapets were completed; for- 
midable batteries were constructed ; a twenty-four pounder, 
and eighteen inch pounder, and an eight inch howitzer, 
were placed in position — such heavy labour being cheerfully 
done by the men under the very guns of the great Mexican 
citadel. Now, one of the gallant regiments in this post of 
real danger and glory, was the New England ninth — part 



628 FRANKLIN PIERCE. 

of Pierce's command. And during the night, while the 
vigilant Quitman was overseeing these trenches, General 
Pierce reported to him in person, received orders to protect 
Steptoe's light battery, and received General Quitman's 
thanks for his prompt execution of the orders. At that 
time there was not an officer in the army who did not ex- 
pect an assault at daylight. But in the morning a white 
flag came from this citadel, and gave the first joyful news 
that Santa Anna had evacuated Mexico !" 

In December, of this year, when it was ascertained that 
active hostilities were at an end, General Pierce returned 
home, resigned his commission, and retired to Concord, 
where he had a public reception of a very enthusiastic 
character. In the course of 1848, the State Legislature 
presented him with a splendid sword as a token of their 
esteem for him as a man, and of his gallantry as a soldier. 

In the presidential canvass of 1848, General Pierce used 
his best efforts on behalf of the candidates of the Demo- 
cratic party; but they were defeated. After the passage 
of the Compromise measures in 1850, he exerted himself 
to procure their general approval in New Hampshire; and 
his influence over his party was shown in several remarkable 
instances, one of which we will record. The Democrats had 
nominated John Atwood for governor. That gentleman 
showed some hostility to the fugitive slave law, one of the 
compromise measures, and General Pierce not only took 
decided ground against him, but procured the nomination 
of another candidate. There was no choice by the people; 
but Mr. Atwood was defeated in the legislature. 

In the autumn of 1850, a convention assembled at Con- 
cord for the revision of the Constitution of New Hamp- 
shire. General Pierce was elected its president by an 
almost unanimous vote. During the sittings of the con- 
vention, he particularly distinguished himself by a speech 



FRANKLIN PIERCE. 629 

advocating the repeal of a clause in the Constitution ren- 
dering Catholics ineligible to office. 

In January, 1852, the Democracy of New Hampshire 
signified its preference for General Pierce as a presidential 
candidate in the approaching canvass. The demonstration 
drew from him the following response : 

" I am far from being insensible to the generous confi- 
dence, so often manifested towards me by the people of this 
state ; and although the object indicated in the resolution, 
having particular reference to myself, be not one of desire 
on my part, the expression is not on that account less 
gratifying. 

" Doubtless the spontaneous and just appreciation of an 
intelligent people is the best earthly reward for earnest and 
cheerful services rendered to one's state and country ; and 
while it is a matter of unfeigned regret that my life has 
been so barren of usefulness, I shall ever hold this and 
similar tributes among my most cherished recollections. 

" To these, my sincere and grateful acknowledgments, I 
desire to add, that the same motives which induced me, 
several years ago, to retire from public life, and which, 
since that time, controlled my judgment in this respect, 
now impel me to say, that the use of my name, in any 
event, before the Democratic National Convention at Balti 
more, to which you are a delegate, would be utterly repug 
nant to my tastes and wishes." 

On the 12th of June, of the same year, the National 
Democratic Convention assembled at Baltimore. The ses- 
sion continued four days. On the forty-ninth ballot. Gene- 
ral Pierce received 280 votes, to 11 for all other candi- 
dates, and was declared the nominee of the party for the 
presidency. This unexpected honour astonished General 
Pierce. To the committee sent to inform him of his nomi- 
nation he replied : — 

" I have the honour to acknowledge your personal kind- 



630 FRANKLIN PIERCE. 

ness in presenting me, this day, your letter, officially in- 
forming me of my nomination, Ijy the Democratic National 
Convention, as a candidate for the presidency of the United 
States. The surprise with which I received the intelligence 
of my nomination was not unmingled with painful solici- 
tude ; and yet it is proper for me to say that the manner 
in which it was conferred was peculiarly gratifying. 

" The delegation from New Hampshire, with all the glow 
of state pride, and with all the warmth of personal regard, 
would not have submitted my name to the convention, nor 
would they have cast a vote for me, under circumstances 
other than those which occurred. 

" I shall always cherish with pride and gratitude the 
recollection of the fact, that the voice which first pronoun- 
ced, and pronounced alone, came from the Mother of States 
— a j^ride and gratitude rising above any consequences that 
can betide me personally. May I not regard it as a fact 
pointing to the overthrow of sectional jealousies, and look- 
ing to the permanent life and vigour of the Union, cemen ted 
by the blood of those who have passed to their reward ? — 
a Union wonderful in its formation, boundless in its hopes, 
amazing in its destiny. 

" I accept the nomination, relying upon an abiding devo- 
tion to the interests, honour, and glory of the whole coun- 
try, but, above and beyond all, upon a Power superior to 
all human might — a Power which, from the first gun of the 
.revolution, in every crisis through which we have passed, 
in every hour of acknowledged peril, when the dark clouds 
had shut down over us, has interposed as if to baffle human 
wisdom, outmarch human forecast, and bring out of dark- 
ness the rainbow of promise. Weak myself, faith and hope 
repose there in security. 

" I accept the nomination upon the platform adopted by 
the convention, not because this is expected of me as a 
candidate, but because the princi23les it embraces command 



FRANKLIN PIERCE. 631 

the approbation of my judgment ; and with them, I believe 
I can safely say, there has been no word nor act of my life 
in conflict." 

The canvass was very spirited. The question of slavery 
entered largely into the stump discussions, and created an 
excitement which the day of election only could allay. 
The result was highly gratifying to the Democratic party. 
Their candidates were chosen by a larger majority of elec- 
toral votes than had ever been received, except by Wash- 
ington and Monroe. 

Not long after his election to the highest office in the gift 
of the people. General Pierce met with a severe affliction. 
By an accident on a New England railroad, his only child — 
a boy about eleven years of age — was killed. This was a 
striking illustration of the manner in which the proudest 
of human joys are often darkened by the shadow of death. 

On the 4th of March, 1853, General Pierce was inaugu- 
rated president of the United States. His inaugural address 
was brief, but clear and decisive, and characterized by a tone 
of conciliation and compromise. The vice-president elect, 
William R. King, of Alabama, took the oath of office, but 
did not survive to enter upon a performance of his duties. 
He died at Havana in the latter part of the spring. 

President Pierce organized his cabinet as follows: — 
William L. Marcy, of New York, secretary of state; 
Robert M'Lelland, of Michigan, secretary of the interior; 
James Guthrie, of Kentucky, secretary of the treasury; 
Jefferson Davis, of Mississippi, secretary of war; James 
C. Dobbin, of North Carolina, secretary of the navy ; Caleb 
Gushing, of Massachusetts, attorney-general; and James 
Campbell, of Pennsylvania, postmaster-general. The mem- 
bers of the cabinet were selected to harmonize the various 
sections of the Democratic party. 

The foreign relations of the republic first engaged the 
attention of the new administration. Mexico contested 



632 FRANKLIN PIERCE. 

the boundary of the territory of New Mexico, claiming 
the Mesilla valley, and hostilities were only warded off by 
the moderation of Colonel Sumner, the commandant of 
the United States forces in the territory. Spain evinced 
much anxiety in regard to Cuba. Great Britain contested 
the right of the New England fishermen, to catch fish 
within three miles of the coast of British America, and 
much ill-feeling between the two countries grew out of the 
seizure of American fishing-smacks. An expedition, under 
Commodore Perry, was sent to Japan to invite or to compel 
the formation of a commercial treaty, and exciting results 
were anticipated. But an event now occurred which 
diverted public attention from all these matters, and 
threatened hostilities in another quarter. As this affair 
marks the commencement of a new era in American 
policy, the particulars of the case assume an importance 
which renders them worthy of narration. 

Martin Koszta was one of the numerous victims of op- 
pressed liberty, who after the defeat of their cause in 1849, 
went from the battle fields of Hungary to seek an asylum 
in the hospitable land of the Sultan. Subsequently he left 
Turkey to find a free and happy home in the United States, 
and, while in New York, he renounced all allegiance to the 
House of Hapsburg, and in legal form, declared his intention 
of becoming an American citizen. Being afterwards called 
b}' private business to Smyrna and Constantinople, he sailed 
for those places, where, as is natural, he j)laced himself 
under the protection of the American flag. At Smyrna he 
was kidnapped on the 22d day of June, 1853, by an armed 
force sent by the Austrian consul-general for that object, 
and was secured by his order, on board the Austrian brig 
of war Hussar. The manner in which this act was com- 
mitted can be described in no words sufficiently expressive 
of the indignation it has elicited throughout the civilized 
world. Mr. Ofiley, United States consul at Smyrna, imme- 



FRANKLIN PIERCE. 633 

diately protested against that act, but his protest had no 
weight against despotic power, and Koszta remained in tlie 
hands of his captors. Fortunately, by one of those provi- 
dential acts of " manifest destiny" which often come to the 
help of the weak and thwart the designs of the unscrupu- 
lous, the United States sloop of war, St. Louis, hove in sight 
off the harbour of Smyrna on the following day. The United 
States consul promptly presented himself on board, and 
represented the facts of the case to Captain Ingraham, who 
immediately showed himself ready to vindicate the cause 
of justice and humanity, and to force the respect due to the 
American name and the American flag. The gallant cap- 
tain, accompanied by Mr. Ofiley, went on board the Austrian 
brig to inquire for Koszta, but the officer in command denied 
the presence of the prisoner on board. They, then, pro- 
ceeded to the Austrian consul, who, firstly, refused to meddle 
in the matter, and finally, after being addressed in such 
language as the circumstance required, consented to permit 
the United States officials to see Koszta on board the Huszar, 
and to question him respecting his nationality. The kid- 
napping by the Austrians, and in such manner, of a man 
enjoying American protection in a neutral land, placed poor 
Koszta in such an agitated state, that when he saw the inter- 
rogators, mistaking them for the executioner going to take 
his life, and seeing no way of salvation, exclaimed, " That 
he was a Hungarian, and that he should die such." These 
words, used in a moment of wild excitement by the prisoner, 
were interpreted by the Austrians as his relinquishment of 
American protection, and the matter was postponed until 
further consideration. A few days after, information being 
brought to Captain Ingraham, that Koszta was to be sent 
to Trieste in one of the Austrian steamers, he brought the 
guns of the St. Louis to bear on the brig Huszar, in order 
to prevent the departure of the prisoner without more dis- 
tinct explanation ; and on the morning of the 2d July, he 
74 



634 FRANKLIN PIERCE. 

went personally on board the Huszar and addressed Koszta 
the question, whether he claimed, or not, the protection of 
the United States ? — Upon Koszta's reply that he " claimed 
it," Captain Ingraham said that he should have it, and 
immediately demanded Koszta from the Austrian captain. 
The latter declined complying with the demand, and stated 
that Koszta was under the orders of the Austrian consul — 
whereupon the gallant captain notified him that if Koszta 
was not delivered to him before 11 A. m., of that day, he 
should take him; and, in an American spirit, he cleared 
his deck for action. It may be stated here that the relative 
forces of the Americans and the Austrians in Smyrna 
harbour were, the United States sloop of war St. Louis, of 
twenty-four guns, on the American side, and the brig Huszar, 
of sixteen guns, a schooner of twelve guns, and three com- 
mercial steamers, fitted up for the circumstance, with four 
guns each, making in all forty guns on the Austrian side. 
The Austrian consul, alarmed at the firmness of the 
gallant captain, and seeing the impossibility of carrying 
out his project, entered then into negotiation with Mr. 
Ollley, and by mutual agreement between them, Koszta was 
placed in the charge of the French consul until the matter 
be decided by their respective superiors. So far, Koszta 
was safe ; but he was still a prisoner in the keeping of the 
French consul, who by the agreement above mentioned, 
was not at liberty to release him until the two governments 
should have decided upon his final disposition. 

The Austrian government soon afterwards sent the fol- 
lowing diplomatic protest to the ministers of the several 
foreign powers represented at Vienna : 

" The events of the 2d of July, at Smyrna, present, in a 
double point of view, a serious deviation from the rules of 
international law. 

"1. The commander of the United States ship of war 
St. Louis threatened his Imperial Majesty's brig, the 



FRANKLIN PIERCE. 635 

Huszar, with a hostile attack, leveUing his guns against 
the latter, and announcing, in writing, that if a certain 
individual, detained on board, and whose nationality was 
contested between the agents of the two governments, was 
not surrendered to him at a certain hour, he would take 
him by force. 

" 2. This act of hostility was committed in the port of a 
neutral power, the friend of the two nations. No doubt 
the threat to attack the ship of a sovereign state, and which 
carries its flag, is nothing less than a menace of war. Now 
the very right to make war is necessarily, and by the very 
nature of that right, inherent in the sovereign power. 'A 
right of such great importance,' says Vattel, ' Law of Na- 
tions,' vol. 2, book 3, chap. 1, ' the right of judging whether 
a nation has a real subject of complaint, if it be a case to 
use force to take justly — if prudence permits it — if the 
good of the state requires it — this right, I say, can only 
belong to the nation or to the sovereign which represents 
it. It is, no doubt, among the number of those rights with- 
out which a government cannot be conducted in a salutary 
manner, and which is called the right of majesty.' The 
founders of the republic of the United States of America 
have fully acknowledged from the commencement of the 
Union, the right reserved for the sovereign power. The 
articles of confederation and perpetual union between the 
states of New Hampshire, Massachusetts, &c., of the 9th 
of July, 1778, contain the following stipulations: — 'The 
Congress of the United States shall alone, and exclusively, 
exercise the right of declaring war and making peace.' 

" This basis of the public law of North America has been 
maintained and sanctioned by the Constitution of the United 
States of the 18th of September, 1787, which, in the 8th 
section, explicitly reserves to the Congress the power of 
declaring war. The Constitution of the United States is, 
in this respect, in perfect harmony with the public law of 



636 FRANKLIN PIERCE. 

Europe. But this right, which is reserved for the supreme 
power of each state, would be illusory and null if the com- 
manders of naval forces, or others, were authorized, either 
explicitly or tacitly, to undertake, either at their own sug- 
gestions, or at the command or with the assent of a diplo- 
matic or consular agent, acts of hostihty or of war against 
the ships or troops of another nation, without a special 
order from the supreme authority of their country, notified 
in the terms prescribed by the law of nations. It is impos- 
sible that the regular governments of the civilized world 
should expose their authority, as Avell as the general peace, 
to the chance of hostilities commenced without their know- 
ledge, and without the special authority of the sovereign 
power, by any functionary in foreign parts. 

" We arrive at the second of the two questions of inter- 
national law mentioned above. There is no doubt that if 
there be any point of maritime and international law pre- 
cise, clear, and adopted by all nations in the world, it is 
the inviolability of neutral ports, the absolute prohibition 
to commit any acts of war or violence there, even against 
an enemy against whom war had been declared. Modern 
history affords but few examples of the latter case. One 
of those rare examples is the attack of the Dutch East 
India fleet which had entered the port of Bergen in Nor- 
way, by an enemy's admiral; and although that attack was 
repulsed by the cannon of the forts of the neutral port, 
Vattel, an authority universally acknowledged on the law 
of nations, nevertheless accuses Denmark, the neutral 
power, of having complained too quietly of a proceeding so 
injurious to its dignity and its rights. In order the better 
to establish the accord between all nations and all legists 
on this question, we may quote the authority of an Ame- 
rican statesman. 

" The following is the opinion pronounced by Mr. Henry 
Wheaton : 



FRANKLIN PIERCE. 637 

" The rights of war cannot be exercised except within 
the territory of the belHgerent powers, or out at sea, or 
within a territory having no owner. It follows that hos- 
tilities cannot be fairly exercised within the territorial 
jurisdictions of the neutral state, which is the common 
friend of the two parties. Not only are all captures made 
by belligerent cruisers within that jurisdiction illegal and 
null, but the captures made by ships of war, which place 
themselves within bays, rivers, at the mouth of rivers, or 
in the harbours of a neutral state, to exercise the rights of 
war from that station, are likewise null. For example, 
when a British privateer stationed herself in the river 
Mississippi, in the neutral territory of the United States, 
to exercise the rights of war from that point, by going and 
coming, by obtaining information at Belise, and by search- 
ing ships which were descending the river — when this pri- 
vateer, we repeat, effected a capture at about three English 
miles from the islands of sand formed at the mouth of the 
Mississippi, Sir W. Scott ordered the restitution of the 
captured ship. On the same principle, when a belligerent 
ship, being in a neutral territory, effects a capture with her 
boat outside of that territory, the capture is considered null. 
For although the enemy's force was employed against the 
vessel captured without the territory, no one can be per- 
mitted to make such use of a neutral territory in order to 
carry on war. (The Anna, Nov., 1805, Robinson's Admi- 
ralty Reports, vol. 5, page 373.) 

"If every act of hostility against a declared enemy 
within the territorial jurisdiction of a neutral state, which 
is on terms of friendship with the two parties, be disloyal 
— if captures effected by belligerent cruisers within the 
bays of the neutral state, or even by boats of ships without 
the territory, while the ships remain within it, are null 
and illegal, according to the laws of the United States, and 
according to the decrees of the Maritime Tribunals of Great 



638 FRANKLIN PIERCE. 

Britain, the attack of a ship belonging to a friendly power 
in a neutral port would merit to be still more severely 
stigmatized." 

To this protest, which ^as communicated to the Ameri- 
can government by the Chevalier Hulsemann, Secretary 
Marcy made a powerful reply. 

The following are the main points in Mr. Marcy's letter : 
— After evincing a desire to conduct the controversy in a 
friendly manner, he proceeds with a full statement of the 
facts, claiming that Koszta was an American citizen, and 
unlawfully seized by the Austrian authorities. He then 
continues thus : — " His Imperial Majesty demands that the 
government of the United States shall direct Koszta to be 
delivered to him; that it shall disavow the conduct of the 
American agents in this affair, call them to a severe account, 
and tender satisfaction proportionate to the outrage. In 
order to arrive at just conclusions, it is necessary to ascer- 
tain and clearly define Koszta's political relation with 
Austria, and with the United States, when he was seized 
at Smyrna. This is the first point which naturally presents 
itself for consideration ; and perhaps the most important 
one in its bearings upon the merits of the case. There is 
great diversity, and much confusion of opinion as to the 
nature and obligations of allegiance. By some it is held 
to be an indestructible political tie, and though resulting 
from the mere accident of birth, yet for ever binding the 
subject to the sovereign. By others it is considered a 
political connexion, in the nature of a civil contract, dis- 
soluble by mutual consent, but not so at the option of either 
party. The sounder and more prevalent doctrine, however, 
is that the citizen or subject having faithfully performed 
the past and present duties resulting from his relation to 
the sovereign power, may at any time release himself 
from the obligation of allegiance ; freely quit the land of 
his birth or adoption, seek through all countries for a 



FRANKLIN PIERCE. 639 

home, and select anywhere, that which offers him the fair- 
est prospect of happiness for himself and his posterity. 
When the sovereign power, wheresoever it may be placed, 
does not answer the end for which it is bestowed — when it 
is not exerted for the general welfare of the people, or has 
become oppressive to individuals — this right to withdraw 
rests on as firm a basis, and is similar in principle to the 
right which legitimates resistance to tyranny. The con- 
flicting laws on the subject of allegiance are of a municipal 
character, and have no controlling operation beyond the 
territorial limits of the countries enacting them. All un- 
certainty, as well as confusion on this subject, is avoided 
by giving due consideration to the fact that the parties to 
the question now under consideration are two independent 
nations, and that neither has the right to appeal to its own 
municipal laws, for the rules to settle the matter in dispute, 
which occurred within the jurisdiction of a third indepen- 
dent power. Neither Austrian decrees nor American laws 
can be properly invoked for aid or direction in this case, 
but international law furnishes the rules for a correct deci- 
sion, and by the light from this source shed upon the trans- 
actions at Smyrna, are its true features to be discerned. 

"Koszta being beyond the jurisdiction of Austria, her 
laws were entirely inoperative in his case, unless the Sultan 
of Turkey has consented to give them vigour within his 
dominions by treaty stipulations. The law of nations has 
rules of its own on the subject of allegiance, and disregards 
generally all restrictions imposed upon it by municipal 
codes. This is rendered most evident by the proceedings 
of independent states in relation to extradition. No state 
can demand from any other, as a matter of right, the sur- 
render of a native born or naturaUzed citizen or subject, an 
emigrant, or even a fugitive from justice, unless the de- 
mand is authorized by express treaty stipulation. Inter- 
national law allows no such claim, though comity may some- 



-640 FRANKLIN PIERCE. 

times yield what right withholds. To surrender political 
offenders (and in this class Austria places Koszta) is not a 
duty, but on the contrary, compliance with such a demand 
would be considered a dishonourable subserviency to a 
foreign power, and an act meriting the reprobation of man- 
kind." 

The secretary of state then proceeds to remind the 
Austrian minister of what took place in 1849 and 1850, in 
relation to the reclamation of Polish refugees in Turkey by 
.Russia, and of Hungarian refugees by Austria, showing 
that the principle for which he argued was then admitted 
by those two powers. The whole affair excited intense 
feeling in the United States as well as in Europe. This 
alone indicates that the administration of President Pierce 
will be a very marked one in the history of the republic. 

In person, President Pierce is rather above the ordinary 
height, and somewhat thin. His hair is tinged with gray, 
and his eyes are blue, bright, and piercing. The expression 
of his countenance is that of quick apprehension, and 
earnest determination. His manners are winning and 
courteous. As an orator he is always pleasing, and often 
forcible. His addresses evince much elegance of compo- 
sition. 



THE END. 



